GIFT  OF 
Mark  Hawley  Ray   f!6 


=Tl 


Management  and 
Feeding  of  Sheep 


By 

Thomas  Shaw 

Late  Professor  of  A  nimal  Husbandry  at  tht 
University  of  Minnesota 


Author  of 

The  Study  of  Breeds,  Animal  Breeding,  Feeding  Farm  Animals, 

The  Management  and  Feeding  of  Cattle,  Soiling  Crops 

and  the  Silo,  Dry  Land  Farming,  etc. 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE    JUDD    COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  Co.,   Limited 
1914 


Copyright,  1914,  by 

ORANGE  JUVD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 
LONDON,  ENGLAND 


/<2 


PRINTED  IN  U.  S.  A. 


To    all    students    of  the   agricultural   colleges   who   are 

interested  in  the  study  of  sheep,  and  to  all  persons 

interested  in  growing  the  same,  this  book 

is  respectfully  dedicated  by  the  Author 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  Authoi  desires  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness 
to  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  also  to  certain  of  the  ex- 
periment stations,  for  the  aid  received  from  publications 
coming  from  these  sources  when  writing  this  volume. 


THE  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

That  sheep  husbandry  in  America  is  not  yet  beyond  the 
threshold  of  possible  advancement  cannot  be  gainsaid, 
and  that  such  is  the  fact  is  exceedingly  unfortunate  for 
American  agriculture.  Great  Britain  alone  has  nearly 
half  as  many  sheep  as  all  the  United  States.  The  reason 
why  the  industry  thus  languishes  cannot  be  discussed 
here.  This  book  has  -been  written  in  the  hope  that  it  may 
aid  in  some  degree  in  giving  this  exceedingly  important 
industry  that  place  which  it  should  occupy  in  the  agri- 
culture of  this  continent. 

Several  excellent  works  on  sheep  have  been  written 
in  America,  but  in  none  of  these  has  the  discussion  been 
confined  to  feeding  and  management.  In  all  of  them  the 
breeds  and  breeding  have  been  more  or  less  dwelt  upon, 
and  just  to  that  extent  has  the  space  been  curtailed  that 
could  have  been  given  to  discussing  feeding  and  man- 
agement. No  work  has  been  written  previously  which 
dwells  solely  upon  these  phases  of  sheep  husbandry.  That 
there  is  room  for  such  a  work  will  be  conceded  by  all  who 
have  thought  upon  the  question. 

In  writing  this  treatise,  the  Author  has  aimed  to  give 
in  orderly  sequence  and  in  simple  language  the  subjects 
discussed  and  everything  pertaining  to  the  discussion  of 
the  various  phases  of  these.  The  effort  has  also  been 
made  to  discuss  both  feeding  and  management  with  such 
fullness  and  comprehensiveness  as  would  not  be  incon- 
sistent with  conciseness  of  statement.  The  breeds  of 
sheep,  the  general  subject  of  breeding  and  the  general 
principles  that  relate  to  feeding  are  not  dwelt  upon,  as 
these  have  been  discussed  at  some  length  in  works  pre- 
viously written  by  the  Author. 

St.  Anthony  Park,  Minnesota,  1914. 

vil 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 
Sheep  as  Improvers  of  Soil  Fertility 

Pag« 

1.  WHY  THE  SHEEP  HAS  A  GOLDEN  HOOF 1 

(a)  Because  it  brings  enrichment  to  the  soil. 

(b)  Because  it  is  the  unchangeable  foe  of  weeds. 

(c)  Because  of  the  dual  return  given  annually. 

(d)  Fertility  is  to  be  reckoned  with  profits. 

2.  WHAT  SHEEP  REMOVE  FROM  THE  SOIL 3 

(a)  The  fertility  removed  in  carcass  and  wool. 

(b)  The  fertility  brought  up  from  the  subsoil. 

(c)  The  enduring  character  of  sheep  pastures. 

;i.    WHY  THE  DROPPINGS  OF  SHEEP  ARE  VALUABLE . 5 

(a)  Because  of  their  chemical  constituents. 

(b)  Because  of  their  readily  available  condition. 

(c)  Because  of  their  even  distribution. 

(d)  Because  they  are  left  where  most  needed. 

4.  FERTILIZING  POOR  LAND  QUICKLY  AT  Low  COST 7 

(a)  Grazing  with  sheep  on  pasture. 

(b)  Supplementing  the  pasture  with  concentrates. 

(c)  Using  commercial  fertilizers  on  the  pastures. 

(d)  Fertilizing  distant  pastures  by  grazing  them. 

5.  SHEEP  AND  FERTILITY  IN  PADDOCKS 8 

(a)  The  convenience  of  these  in  growing  soiling  food. 

(b)  Strewing  coarse  fodders  over  these  when  feeding 

them. 

(c)  The  frequent  renewal  of  grasses  in  these. 

6.  SHEEP  AND  FERTILIZER  FOR  GARDENERS 10 

(a)  Gardeners  fattening  sheep  in  winter. 

(b)  When  such  feeding  should  be  undertaken. 

(c)  Fertilizer  may  be  thus  obtained  sometimes  with- 

out cost. 

(d)  Fertilizer  for  gardens  from  feeding  stations. 

(e)  Sheep  guano  from  the  western  ranges. 

7.  How  SHEEP  MANURE  TAKES  HARM 11 

(a)  It  may  be  injured  by  leaching. 

(b)  It  may  be  injured  by  molds. 

(c)  The  wisdom  of  applying  it  as  early  as  possible. 

ix 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  II 

Sheep  as  Scavengers  and  Improvers  of  Crop  Yields 


Page 

1.  SHEEP  AS  WEED  DESTROYERS 13 

(a)  Weeds  that  sheep  will  not  eat  are  rare. 

(b)  The  stage  at  which  they  consume  them  best. 

(c)  Sheep  as  gleaners  in  pastures. 

(d)  Sheep  as  gleaners  amid  the  stubbles. 

(e)  Sheep  as  gleaners  in  standing  corn. 

(f)  Sheep  as  gleaners  in  by-places. 

(g)  Sheep  as  gleaners  on  the  summer  fallow. 

2.  FREEING  LAND  FROM  WEEDS  BY  SHEEP 17 

(a)  When  and  how  this  may  be  done. 

(b)  The  crops  best  adapted  for  such  grazing. 

(c)  The  benefits  from  such  grazing. 

(d)  The  difficulties  that  may  be  encountered. 

(e)  The  Author's  experience  therewith. 

3.  SHEEP  AS  DESTROYERS  OF  BRUSH 23 

(a)  The  aid  that  they  may  thus  render. 

(b)  How  far  they  should  be  thus  used. 

(c)  How  to  manage  them  when  grazing  brush. 

4.  IMPROVING  GRAIN  YIELDS  THROUGH  GRAZING  WITH  SHEEP__    24 

(a)  The  grain  crops  thus  improved  by  grazing. 

(b)  When  and  where  such  results  may  be  looked  for. 

(c)  When  a.nd  where  such  grazing  may  work  harm. 

5.  IMPROVING  THE  STAND  OF  GRASS  THROUGH  GRAZING  WITH 

SHEEP  . 27 

(a)  How  newly  sown  grass  is  thus  improved. 

(b)  When  newly  sown  grass  is  thus  improved. 

(c)  Where  newly  sown  grass  is  thus  improved. 

(d)  When  such  grazing  would  be  injurious. 

6.  IMPROVING  CLOVER  SEED  YIELDS  THROUGH   GRAZING  WITH 

SHEEP 28 

(a)  How  such  improvement  is  effected. 

(b)  Why  sheep  do  this  work  most  effectively. 

(c)  When  such  grazing  may  do  harm. 

7.  WHY  SHEEP  SHOULD  BE  KEPT  ON  NEARLY  ALL  FARMS 29 

(a)  Because  of  the  service  they  can  render. 

(b)  A  small  flock  kept  almost  without  cost. 

(c)  The  conditions  are  favorable  to  thrift. 

(d)  Why  small  flocks  are  not  more  numerous. 

8.  SHEEP  AND'FRESH  MEAT  ON  THE  FARM 31 

(a)  They  are  specially  adapted  to  furnishing  such  food. 

(b)  The  mutton  they  furnish  is  a  delicacy. 

(c)  The  influence  on  the  cost  of  living. 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER  III 
Sheep  for  Wool,  for  Mutton  and  for  Both  Uses 

Page 

1.  CLASSIFICATION  BASED  ON  USE 33 

(a)  The  divisions  based  on  such  classification. 

(b)  Where  sheep  are  kept  for  these  uses. 

(c)  Which  shall  be  dominant  determined  by  conditions. 

2.  THE  WOOL  AND  MUTTON  PRODUCING  BREEDS 35 

(a)  Which  are  termed  "w6ol  producing." 

(b)  Which  are  termed  "mutton  producing." 

(c)  These  distinctions  are  being  modified. 

3.  THE  INFLUENCES  THAT  AFFECT  WOOL  PRODUCTION 37 

(a)  The   chief   of   these   are   climate,   food  and  care, 

breeding  and  age. 

(b)  The  influence  of  climate  on  wool. 

(c)  The  influence  of  food  and  care  on  wool. 

(d)  The  influence  of  breeding  on  wool. 

(e)  The  influence  of  age  on  wool. 

4.  THE  INFLUENCES  THAT  AFFECT  MUTTON  PRODUCTION 41 

(a)  The  chief  of  these  are  climate,  food,  breeding,  care 

and  wool. 

(b)  The  influence  of  climate  on  mutton. 

(c)  The  influence  of  food  on  mutton. 

(d)  The  influence  of  breeding  on  mutton. 

(e)  The  influence  of  care  on  mutton. 

(f)  The  influence  of  wool  on  mutton. 

5.  THE  WOOL  AND  MUTTON  BREEDS  CONTRASTED 44 

(a)  The  contrast  as  to  size. 

(b)  The  contrast  as  to  form. 

(c)  The  contrast  as  to  hardihood. 

6.  CONDITIONS  MORE  FAVORABLE  TO  WOOL  PRODUCTION  MAINLY    45 

(a)  Rugged  lands  of  but  little  value. 

(b)  Dry  climates  where  vegetation  is  parched. 

(c)  Situations  remote  from  market. 

(d)  Areas  with  but  few  inhabitants. 

7.  CONDITIONS     MORE    FAVORABLE    TO    MUTTON     PRODUCTION 

MAINLY 46 

(a)  Lands  valuable  and  productive. 

(b)  Climates  favorable  to  abundant  growth. 

(c)  Locations  near  great  centers  of  population. 

3.    CROSSING  MERINOS  ON  MUTTON  BREEDS  AND  THEIR  GRADES.,    48 

(a)  The  results  as  shown  in  size  and  weight. 

(b)  The  results  as  shown  in  wool  production. 

(c)  The  results  as  shown  in  hardihood. 


Xll  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

9.    CROSSING  MUTTON  BREEDS  ON  MERINOS  AND  THEIR  GRADES—    50 

(a)  The  results  as  shown  in  size  and  weight. 

(b)  The  results  as  shown  in  wool  production. 

(c)  The  results  as  shown  in  hardihood. 

10.  WHAT  THE  AIM  SHOULD  BE  IN  WOOL  PRODUCTION 53 

(a)  To   secure   wool   of   a    desired   grade   in   largest 

quantity. 

(b)  To  secure  its  even  distribution  over  the  body. 

(c)  To  secure  even  and  highest  quality  in  the  wool. 

11.  WHAT  THE  AIM  SHOULD  BE  IN  MUTTON  PRODUCTION 55 

(a)  To  secure  the  most  flesh  compatible  with  normal 

size. 

(b)  To  secure  highest  development  in  the  best  parts. 

(c)  To  secure  highest  quality  in  the  mutton  produced. 

(d)  To  meet  the  demands  which  the  markets  call  for. 


CHAPTER  IV 
Wool  Described  and  Classified 

1.  WHAT  Is  MEANT  BY  WOOL 58 

(a)  The  condition  of  wool. 

(b)  Wherein  hair  differs  from  wool. 

(c)  Wool  and  hair  in  the  improved  and  unimproved 

breeds. 

2.  THE  DISCUSSION  OF  FIBER  IN  WOOL 60 

(a)  The  form,  appearance  and  size  of  the  fibers. 

(b)  The  two  parts  of  the  fiber. 

(c)  The  three  layers  which  compose  each  fiber. 

3.  THE  DISCUSSION  OF  YOLK  IN  WOOL ,___    62 

(a)  What  is  meant  by  yolk. 

(b)  The  mission  of  yolk  in  wool. 

(c)  Influences  that  affect  yolk  in  wool. 

(d)  The  amount  of  yolk  that  is  desirable. 

4.  How  WOOLS  ARE  CLASSIFIED 64 

(a)  On  the  basis  of  the  length. 

(b)  On  the  basis  of  diameter  in  the  fiber. 

(c)  On  the  basis  of  adaptation  to  use. 

5.  SHORT,  INTERMEDIATE  AND  LONG  WOOLS 65 

'a)  Short  wool,  whence  obtained,  and  its  uses. 

'b)  Intermediate  wool,  whence  obtained,  and  its  uses. 

(c)  Long  wool,  whence  obtained,  and  its  uses. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  xiii 

Page 

6.  SUPERFINE,  FINE,  INTERMEDIATE  AND  COARSE  WOOL 66 

(a)  Superfine  wool,  whence  obtained,  and  its  uses. 

(b)  Fine  wool,  whence  obtained,  and  its  uses. 

(c)  Medium  wool,  whence  obtained,  and  its  uses. 

(d)  Coarse  wool,  whence  obtained  and  its  uses. 

7.  CARDING  AND  COMBING  WOOLS 68 

(a)  Carding  wools,  whence  obtained,  and  their  uses. 

(b)  Combing  wools,  whence  obtained,  and  their  uses. 

(c)  Delaine  wools,  whence  obtained,  and  their  uses. 

8.  WOOL  AS  DISTRIBUTED  OVER  THE  BODY 70 

(a)  Where  wool  of  the  best  quality  is  found. 

(b)  Where  wool  of  the  second  best  quality  is  found, 

(c)  Where  wool  of  the  third  best  quality  is  found. 

(d)  The  further  subdivision  of  these  grades. 


CHAPTER  V 
Characteristics  of  Wool 

1.  THE  LEADING  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  WOOL 73 

(a)  The  chief  essential  qualities  in  good  wool. 

(b)  The  chief  defects  in  wool. 

(c)  Influences  from  environment  hurtful  to  wool. 

2.  STRENGTH  OF  FIBER  IN  WOOL 74 

(a)  Strength  of  fiber  defined. 

(b)  Indications  of  strength  in  fiber. 

(c)  How  secured  and  increased. 

3.  LENGTH  OF  STAPLE  IN  WOOL 75 

(a)  Length  of  staple  in  wool  defined. 

(b)  Variations  in  length  of  staple. 

(c)  How  secured  and  increased. 

4.  THICKNESS  OR  DENSITY  IN  WOOL 77 

(a)  Thickness  or  density  defined. 

(b)  Variations  in  density. 

(c)  How  secured  and  increased. 

5.  CRIMP  OR  CURL  IN  WOOL 78 

(a)  Crimp  or  curl  defined. 

(b)  Variations  in  crimp. 

(c)  How  secured  and  increased. 

6.  SOFTNESS  OR  PLIANCY  IN  WOOL 79 

(a)  Softness  or  pliancy  defined. 

(b)  Variations  in  softness. 

(c)  How  softness  is  secured  and  increased. 


XIV  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

7.  COLOR  IN  THE  STAPLE  OF  WOOL 80 

(a)  Color  in  the  staple  defined 

Variations  in  the  color  of  wool. 

How  desirable  color  is  secured  and  increased. 

8.  UNIFORMITY  OF  FLEECE  IN  WOOL 81 

(a)  Uniformity  in  fleece  defined. 

(b)  Variations  in  uniformity. 

(c)  How  uniformity  is  increased  and  secured. 

(d)  How  far  uniformity  is  attainable. 

9.  STYLE  OR  QUALITY  IN  WOOL 82 

(a)  Style  or  quality  defined. 

(b)  Variations  in  style. 

(c)  How  secured  and  maintained. 

10.  CLOSURE  OF  FLEECE  IN  WOOL 83 

(a)  Closure  of  fleece  defined. 

(b)  The  benefits  from  such  closure. 

(c)  The  extent  to  which  it  should  be  sought. 

11.  FELTING  IN  WOOL 84 

(a)  Felting  wool  defined. 

(b)  The  causes  that  produce  felting. 

(c)  How  felting  in  wool  may  be  prevented. 

1£.    CLOUDINESS  IN  WOOL 85 

(a)  Cloudy  wool  defined. 

(b)  The  causes  that  produce  cloudy  wool. 

(c)  How  cloudiness  in  wool  may  be  prevented. 

13.  STRIPY  OR  WATERY  WOOL 86 

(a)  Stripy  or  watery  wool  defined. 

(b)  The  causes  that  produce  stripy  wool. 

(c)  How  stripy  wool  may  be  prevented. 

14.  BREAK  OR  JOINT  IN  WOOL 87 

(a)  Break  or  joint  defined. 

The  causes  that  produce  break  or  joint. 

How  break  or  joint  in  wool  may  be  prevented. 

15.  KEMP  OR  JAR  IN  WOOL 88 

(a)  Kemp  or  jar  defined.    . 

(b)  The  causes  that  produce  kemp  or  jar. 

(c)  How  kemp  or  jar  in  wool  may  be  prevented. 

16.  TOPPINESS,   BROAD  TOPPINESS,   BLACK   TOP   AND   CLOTS   IN 

WOOL 89 

(a)  Toppiness,   broad  toppiness,  black   top,   and   clots 

defined. 

(b)  The  causes  that  produce  these  defects. 


^  i 

I! 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  XV 

Page 

TOPPINESS,  BROAD  TOPPINESS,  ETC. — Continued 

(c)   How  these  defects  may  be  prevented. 
17.    INFLUENCES  FROM  ENVIRONMENT  THAT  ARE  HURTFUL 91 

(a)  Injury  from  burs  and  how  to  prevent  it. 

(b)  Injury  from  needle  grass  and  how  to  prevent  it 

(c)  Injury  from  substances  when  taking  fodder. 

(d)  Injury  from  exposure  or  improper  housing. 


CHAPTER  VI 
Lambs  from  Birth  Until  Weaned 

1.  THE  SEASON  WHEN  LAMBS  SHOULD  COME 93 

(a)  The  influences  that  determine  this. 

(b)  Milk  lambs  for  the  winter  market. 

(c)  Winter  lambs  for  the  spring  market. 

(d)  Lambs  to  be  sold  as  breeders. 

(e)  Lambs  to  be  finished  in  the  autumn. 

(f)  Lambs  to  be  finished  in  the  winter. 

2.  THE  DAMS  WHEN  NEARING  PARTURITION 95 

(a)  When  important  to  know  the  exact  time  of  this. 

(b)  How  it  may  be  known  when  the  lambs  will  come. 

(c)  When  and  how  to  separate  such  dams. 

3.  SPECIAL  CARE  AT  THE  LAMBING  SEASON 97 

(a)  Reasons  why  such  care  is  necessary. 

(b)  Necessary  in  fields  as  well  as  in  shed. 

(c)  It  should  be  ungrudgingly  given. 

4.  GIVING  AID  TO  THE  DAMS  IN  LABOR 98 

(a)  When  such  aid  may  be  necessary. 

(b)  Why  it  should  be  given  skillfully  and  gently. 

(c)  It  is  better  not  given  when  all  is  well. 

.").    GIVING  AID  TO  THE  YOUNG  LAMBS 100 

(a)  Of  no  advantage  when  the  lambs  are  strong. 

(b)  When  aid  will  be  helpful. 

(c)  How  aid  may  be  given. 

<>.     REVIVING  LAMBS  THAT  MAY  HAVE  BEEN  CHILLED 102 

(a)  The  methods  of  reviving  them. 

(b)  The  dangers  to  be  avoided. 

(c)  When  young  lambs  are  chilled  in  fields. 

7.    EWES  NOT  OWNING  THEIR  LAMBS 103 

(a)  The  causes  that  may  lead  to  this. 

(b)  How  to  manage  in  such  instances. 

(c)  Procedure  when  ewes  lose  their  lambs. 


XVI  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

8.  REARING  LAMBS  BY  HAND 105 

(a)  When  such  rearing  may  be  necessary. 

(b)  The  first  milk  given. 

(c)  The  cost  is  usually  excessive. 

(d)  How  such  cost  may  be  reduced. 

9.  SUPPLEMENTAL  FOOD  FOR  LAMBS 107 

(a)  When  supplemental  food  is  needed. 

(b)  When  supplemental  food  is  given. 

(c)  What  should  determine  its  character. 

(d)  Grain  more  profitable  fed  direct  than  through  dams. 

10.  FOODS  SUITABLE  FOR  YOUNG  LAMBS 108 

(a)  Fodders  for  young  lambs. 

(b)  Succulence  for  young  lambs. 

(c)  Concentrates  for  young  lambs. 

11.  THE  LAMB  CREEP 110 

(a)  The  necessity  for  a  lamb  creep. 

(b)  The  lamb  creep  in  the  shed. 

(c)  The  lamb  creep  in  the  pasture. 

12.  WEANING  LAMBS  AND  How  IT  Is  DONE 111 

(a)  The  age  at  which  lambs  should  be  weaned. 

(b)  Weaning  should  be  abrupt  rather  than  gradual. 

(c)  Grading  the  lambs  when  weaned. 

13.  FOOD  FOR  LAMBS  WHEN  WEANED 113 

(a)  The  character  of  the  pasture. 

(b)  When  supplementary  grain  food  is  necessary, 

(c)  The  best  grain  mixtures  to  feed. 

14.  CASTRATING  LAMBS . 114 

(a)  When  they  should  be  castrated. 

(b)  Why  they  should  be  castrated. 

(c)  The  best  age  at  which  to  castrate. 

(d)  How  to  castrate  lambs  of  different  ages. 

15.  DOCKING  LAMBS 117 

(a)  Why  lambs  should  be  docked. 

(b)  When  lambs  should  be  docked. 

(c)  How  lambs  should  be  docked. 

16.  THE  REGISTRATION  OF  PURE-BRED  LAMBS 119 

(a)  They  should  be  given  marks  soon  after  birth. 

(b)  Why  registration  should  be  deferred  for  a  time. 

(c)  Why   pure   breds    should    be    registered    the    first 

season. 

(d)  Why  they  should  be  ear-tagged  when  registered. 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS  XV11 

Page 

17.    MISCELLANEOUS  CONSIDERATIONS  120 

(a)  Young  lambs  nursing  to  excess. 

(b)  Furnishing  earth  to  young  lambs. 

(c)  Water  for  young  lambs. 

(d)  Nurse  cows  for  delicate  lambs. 


CHAPTER  VII 
Feeding  and  Care  of  Breeding  Ewes 

1.  EWES  FROM  WEANING  UNTIL  BRED 122 

(a)  The  age  at  which  breeding  should  begin. 

(b)  From  weaning  until  put  in  winter  quarters. 

(c)  Food  and  care  in  winter. 

(d)  From  winter  until  the  mating  season. 

2.  MANAGEMENT  OF  EWES  AT  THE  BREEDING  SEASON 124 

(a)  Aim  to  breed  when  the  system  is  building  up 

(b)  How  such  a  condition  may  be  attained. 

(c)  Methods  followed  modified  by  conditions. 

(d)  Mating  under  extensive  conditions. 

(e)  Mating  on  the  arable  farm. 

3.  FROM  THE  PASTURE  TO  WINTER  QUARTERS 126 

(a)  Methods  of  changing  modified  by  conditions. 

(b)  What  should  be  guarded  against. 

(c)  Benefits  from  continued  partial  grazing. 

4.  IDEAL  CONDITIONS  FOR  WINTERING  EWES 128 

(a)  The  ideal  location  for  the  shed. 

(b)  The  ideal  shed  or  stable. 

(c)  The  ideal  yard  and  paddock. 

5.  THE  GRADING  OF  THE  FLOCK 129 

(a)  When  such  grading  may  be  necessary. 

(b)  How  such  grading  may  be  accomplished. 

(c)  The  size  of  the  flock  when  graded. 

6.  FOOD  PRIOR  TO  THE  TIME  OF  LAMBING 130 

(a)  The  fodders  that  are  suitable. 

(b)  The  succulence  that  is  suitable. 

(c)  The  concentrates  that  are  suitable. 

7.  EXERCISE  FOR  BREEDING  EWES  WHEN  PREGNANT 133 

(a)  Why  such  exercise  is  necessary. 
^          (b)  How  to  secure  the  necessary  exercise. 
^ —     (c)  The  reserve  pasture  for  winter  grazing. 


XV111  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

8.  CARING  FOR  EWES  AT  THE  TIME  OF  LAMBING 135 

(a)  Not  much  care  called  for  on  the  pastures. 

(b)  Food  for  ewes  during  first  days  after  lambing. 

(c)  Care  of  the  udder  after  lambing. 

(d)  Grading  ewes  subsequently  to  lambing. 

9.  FOOD  FOR  EWES  SUBSEQUENTLY  TO  LAMBING 137 

(a)  Forage  that  is  suitable. 

(b)  Succulence  that  is  suitable. 

(c)  Concentrates  that  are  suitable. 

10.  FROM  THE  SHED  TO  THE  PASTURES 139 

(a)  The  change  should  be  gradually  made. 

(b)  The  reduction  of  the  fodder. 

(c)  The  reduction  of  the  grain. 

11.  MANAGEMENT  WHEN  ON  PASTURE 141 

(a)  No  additional  food  usually  needed  for  dams. 

(b)  Soiling  food  may  be  fed  if  needed. 

(c)  Cheaper  to  furnish  supplemental  grazing. 

12.  MANAGEMENT  WHEN  WEANING  THE  LAMBS 142 

(a)  The  separation  should  be  abrupt  and  complete. 

(b)  The  care  called  for  by  the  udder. 

(c)  A  low  diet  best  until  the  milk  flow  has  ceased 

13.  MANAGEMENT  OF  EWES  TO  BE  DISCARDED 144 

(a)  When  they  should  be  sold  at  once. 

(b)  The  cheapest  method  of  fattening  them. 

(c)  When  they  may  be  fattened  in  winter. 

14.  MISCELLANEOUS  ATTENTIONS  MORE  OR  LESS  CALLED  FOR 144 

(a)  The  ventilating  of  the  sheds. 

(b)  The  bedding  of  the  shed  and  yards. 

(c)  Special  feeding  for  ewes  whose  teeth  are  failing. 

(d)  Protection  from  cold  storms,  spring  and  autumn. 

(e)  Tagging  and  trimming  called  for. 

f )  The  paring  of  the  feet  of  ewes. 

g)  Dipping  for  ticks  once  or  twice  a  year. 

h)  The  shed  space  called  for  by  a  breeding  ewe. 
i)    The  great  hazard  from  close  housing. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
The  Feeding  and  Care  of  Rams 

FOOD  FROM  WEANING  UNTIL  WINTER 151 

(a)   Separating  and  disposing  of  the  cull  males. 

'b)   Suitable  pastures  from  weaning  until  housing. 

'c)   Suitable  concentrates  from  weaning  until  housing. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  XIX 

Page 

2.  FOOD  AND  CARE  THE  FIRST  WINTER 152 

(a)  Shelter  and  winter  quarters  for  such  rams. 

(b)  Food  suitable  for  shearling  rams. 

(c)  The  number  that  may  be  kept  together. 

(d)  Bringing  strange  rams  together. 

3.  STOCK  RAMS  IN  WINTER 153 

(a)  The  quarters  suitable  for  such  rams. 

(b)  The  food  suitable  for  such  rams. 

(c)  Why  they  should  run  with  the  dams. 

4.  FOOD  AND  CARE  FOR  SALE  RAMS  IN  SUMMER .. 154 

(a)  The  pastures  that  are  suitable. 

(b)  Feeding  supplementary  food. 

(c)  The  trimming  of  sale  rams. 

5.  FOOD  AND  CARE  FOR  STOCK  RAMS  IN  SUMMER ..... 155 

(a)  The  pastures  that  are  suitable. 

(b)  Feeding  supplementary  food. 

(c)  Preparing  for  the  season  of  service. 

6.  FOOD  AND  MANAGEMENT  DURING  THE  SEASON  OF  SERVICE 157 

(a)  The  quarters  for  such  rams. 

(b)  The  food  for  such  rams  in  shed  or  field. 

(c)  The  management  when  in  service. 

(d)  The  service  of  which  rams  are  capable. 

7.  THE  DISPOSAL  OF  RAMS 160 

(a)  The  disposal  of  ram  lambs. 

(b)  The  disposal  of  shearling  rams. 

(c)  The  disposal  of  stock  rams. 

(d)  The  age  to  which  rams  may  be  profitably  used. 

8.  MISCELLANEOUS  ATTENTIONS  CALLED  FOR 161 

(a)  Trimming  the  wool  on  sale  rams. 

(b)  Trimming  the  feet  of  rams. 

(c)  The  chalking  of  rams  in  field  service. 

(d)  Isolating  rams  brought  in  from  distant  flocks. 


CHAPTER  IX 
Pastures  and  Grazing  Them  By  Sheep 

1.    THE  BEST  NATURAL  GRAZING  LANDS  FOR  SHEEP 164 

(a)  Those  that  have  good  drainage. 

(b)  Those  that  produce  herbage,  fine  and  nutritious 

(c)  Those  that  have  ample  shade  and  living  water. 

(d)  Extensive  pastures  better  adapted  to  sheep  than  to 

cattle. 


:EI 

ii 


XXX11  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

4.  FITTING  SHEEP  FOR  SALE 355 

(a)  They  should  possess  good  flesh  and  bloom. 

(b)  They  should  be  measurably  trimmed. 

(c)  They  should  be  carefully  graded  when  sold  in  lots. 

5.  THE  DISPOSAL  OF  GRADE  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS 356 

(a)  On  the  farm  they  are  usually  sold  as  lambs. 

(b)  On  the  range  they  are  sold  as  lambs  or  wethers. 

(c)  Lambs  furnishing  meat  for  the  home. 

6.  DETERMINING  THE  AGE  OF  THE  SHEEP 357 

'a)  Indications  furnished  by  the  teeth, 
'b)  Other  indications  of  age. 
[c)  Variations  in  indications. 

7.  PREPARING  SHEEP  FOR  SHIPPING 359 

(a)  Sheep  that  are  shipped  from  the  ranges. 

(b)  Sheep  that  are  shipped  from  farm  pastures. 

(c)  Sheep  that  are  shipped  from  the  feed  yards. 

8.  SHIPPING  STOCKERS  FROM  THE  RANGES 361 

(a)  The  number  that  one  car  can  carry. 

Grading  before  shipping. 
[c}  Better  not  unloaded  in  transit. 

9.  SHIPPING  FINISHED  SHEEP  IN  CARLOTS 363 

(a)  Securing  cars  for  shipment. 

(b)  The  number  that  one  car  will  carry. 

(c)  Disposal  at  the  stockyards. 

10.    SHIPPING  FINISHED  SHEEP  IN  TRAINLOADS 364 

[a)  An  unloading  point  near  the  market. 

[b)  When  the  sheep  should  reach  it. 

[c)  How  the  sheep  are  handled  subsequently. 


v< 

i! 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
Protecting  Sheep  From  Dogs  and  Wolves 

1.  How  DOGS  AND  WOLVES  AFFECT  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 366 

(a)  The  losses  from  both  sources  are  enormous. 

(b)  The  greatest  loss  is  the  effect  upon  the  industry.* 

(c)  The  loss  from  dogs  is  greater  than  from  wolves 

(d)  That  it  is  so  is  a  blot  upon  our  civilization. 

2.  How  DOGS  WORRY  SHEEP 368 

(a)  They  more  frequently  attack  them  at  night. 

(b)  The  usual  mode  of  attack. 

(c)  The  power  of  the  dogs  to  worry. 

(d)  To  detect  the  dogs  is  almost  impossible. 

(e)  Losses  additional  to  sheep  killed  or  maimed. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  XXX111 

Page 

3.  PROTECTION  BY  LEGISLATIVE  ENACTMENT 369 

(a)  This  has  usually  proved  inadequate. 

(b)  The  owners  of  dogs  the  more  numerous. 

(c)  The  influence  of  the  sporting  element. 

4.  LEGISLATION  THAT  WILL  PROTECT  FROM  DOGS 370 

(a)  Taxing  dogs  to  reimburse  for  losses. 

(b)  What  experience  has  shown  with  reference  thereto. 

5.  PROTECTIVE  MEASURES  ON  THE  FARM 371 

(a)  Protection  furnished  by  bells  and  goats. 

(b)  Protection  furnished  by  corrals. 

(c)  Protection  furnished  by  fences. 

(d)  Protection  through  the  medium  of  firearms. 

(e)  Protection  by  means  of  poison. 

6.  WHY  SHEEP  Do  BETTER  WHEN  NOT  CORRALLED 373 

(a)  They  travel  only  to  secure  food. 

(b)  They  are  less  liable  to  contract  disease. 

(c)  They  can  pasture  more  in  the  cool  of  the  day. 

7.  THE  DOG  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 376 

(a)  The  number  of  the  dogs  kept. 

(b)  The  cost  of  keeping  a  dog. 

(c)  The  enormity  of  the  waste  incurred. 

8.  THE  PLACE  FOR  THE  DOG  IN  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 377 

(a)  Under  range  conditions  indispensable. 

(b)  In  unfenced  arable  areas  essential. 

(c)  The  wonderful  fidelity  of  shepherd  dogs. 

9.  THE  LOSSES  INCURRED  BY  THE  WOLVES 378 

(a)  Where  these  losses  are  most  serious. 

(b)  The  two  classes  of  wolves. 

(c)  The  way  in  which  they  destroy. 

10.    PROTECTIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  WOLVES 381 

Protection  furnished  by  numerous  bells. 
Protection  furnished  by  trapping. 

(c)  Protection  furnished  through  poisoning. 

(d)  Protection  furnished  through  state  bounties. 

(e)  Protection  furnished  by  hunting. 

(f )  Protection  furnished  by  fences. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
The  More  Common  Ailments  of  Sheep 

PREVENTION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  DISEASE  IN  SHEEP 385 

(a)  Treatment  less  satisfactory  with  sheep  than  other 
stock. 


XXXiv  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

PREVENTION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  DISEASE — Continued 

(b)  The  importance  of  preventive  measures. 

(c)  Proper  environment  for  and  care  of  sheep. 

2.  PARASITES  THAT  PREY  EXTERNALLY  ON  SHEEP 387 

The  sheep  tick  and  its  life  history. 
The  scab  mite  and  its  life  history. 
(c)  The  sheep  louse  and  its  history. 

3.  PARASITES  THAT  PREY  INTERNALLY  ON  SHEEP 391 

(a)  The  stomach  worm  and  treatment. 

The  tape  worm  and  treatment. 

The  lung  worm  and  treatment. 

Nodule  disease  and  treatment. 
(e)  Grub  in  the  head  and  treatment. 

4.  AILMENTS  FROM  DIGESTIVE  SOURCES 404 

(a)  Bloat  and  treatment. 

(b)  Overtaxed  digestion  and  treatment. 

(c)  Diarrhea  and  treatment. 

(d)  Colic  and  treatment. 

(e)  Stretches  and  treatment. 

5.  AILMENTS  AFFECTING  THE  ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION 41ft 

(a)  Catarrh  and  treatment. 

(b)  Bronchitis  and  treatment. 

(c)  Pneumonia  and  treatment. 

(d)  Pleurisy  and  treatment. 

6.  AILMENTS  ARISING  FROM  REPRODUCTION 412 

(a)  Abortion  and  treatment. 

(b)  Retention  of  the  afterbirth  and  treatment. 

(c)  Inversion  of  the  womb  and  treatment. 

7.  AILMENTS  THAT  AFFECT  THE  LIMBS 414 

'a)   Common  foot  rot  and  treatment. 
Contagious  foot  rot  and  treatment. 
Broken  limbs  and  treatment. 

8.  AILMENTS  PECULIAR  TO  LAMBS 417 

(a)  Indigestion  and  treatment. 

(b)  White  scours  and  treatment. 

(c)  Retention  of  excrement  and  treatment. 

(d)  Wool  balls  and  treatment. 

(e)  Navel  disease  and  treatment. 

9.  AILMENTS  MISCELLANEOUS  IN  CHARACTER 418 

(a)  Goiter  and  treatment. 

(b)  Ophthalmia  and  treatment. 

(c)  Tumors  and  treatment. 

(d)  Urinary  troubles  and  treatment. 

(e)  Garget  and  treatment. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  XXXV 

CHAPTER  XX 
Dipping  Sheep  for  Ticks  and  Scabs 

Page 

1.  THE  OBJECTS  SOUGHT  FROM  DIPPING  SHEEP 421 

(a)  The  removal  of  external  parasites. 

(b)  Improving  the  condition  of  the  skin. 

(c)  Increasing  growth  in  the  wool. 

2.  THE  Two  CLASSES  OF  SHEEP  DIPS 422 

(a)  Those  that  are  proprietary. 

(b)  Those  that  are  non-proprietary. 

(c)  Considerations  when  choosing  between  them. 

3.  THE  BASIC  ELEMENT  IN  SHEEP  DIPS 425 

(a)  Those  with  arsenic  as  the  basic  element. 

(b)  Those  with  carbolic  acid  as  the  basic  element. 

(c)  Those  with  tobacco  as  the  basic  element. 

(d)  Those  with  lime  and  sulphur  as  the  basic  element. 

4.  THE  DIPPING  PLANT 431 

(a)  For  a  large  flock. 

(b)  For  an  ordinary  farm  flock. 

(c)  For  a  few  animals. 

5.  THE  SEASON  FOR  DIPPING 436 

(a)  It  may  be  done  at  nearly  all  seasons. 

(b)  The  best  seasons  for  dipping. 

(c)  The  frequency  of  the  dipping. 

6.  FACTS  THAT  BEAR  UPON  THE  WORK  OF  DIPPING 438 

(a)  The  amounts  of  the  dip  called  for. 

(b)  Renewing  the  supply  when  dipping  sheep. 

(c)  The  time  that  sheep  should  remain  in  the  dip. 

(d)  Particulars  that  apply  to  dipping  for  scab. 

(e)  The  necessity  for  gentle  handling. 

7.  CARE  OF  THE  ANIMALS  SUBSEQUENTLY  TO  DIPPING 440 

(a)  The  aim  should  be  to  change  their  quarters. 

(b)  When  disinfecting  former  quarters  is  necessary. 

(c)  How  disinfection  is  secured. 

8.  REMOVING  PARASITES  BY  OTHER  METHODS 441 

(a)  By  pouring  liquids  from  a  vessel. 

(b)  By  applying  unguents. 

(c)  By  feeding  sulphur. 

9.  How  FAR  DIPPING  Is  A  NECESSITY 443 

(a)  When  removing  ticks  and  scabs. 

(b)  When  cleansing  the  skin. 

(c)  How  to  render  it  unnecessary. 


XXXVI  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXI 
Establishing  a  Flock  and  Improving  It 

Page 

1.  IMPORTANT  CONSIDERATIONS  WHEN  ESTABLISHING  A  FLOCK__  445 

(a)  The  consideration  of  environment. 

(b)  The  consideration  of  proximity  to  market. 

(c)  The  consideration  of  food  supplies. 

2.  ESTABLISHING  A  PURE-BRED  FLOCK 447 

(a)  Who  may  engage  in  the  work. 

(b)  Determining  the  choice  of  breed. 

(c)  The  character  of  the  foundation  animals. 

(d)  The  sources  from  which  they  may  be  obtained. 

3.  ESTABLISHING  A  FLOCK  OF  GRADES 451 

(a)  The  essentials  as  to  form  in  the  females. 

(b)  Blood  elements  in  the  same. 

(c)  The  sources  from  which  they  may  be  obtained. 

4.  THE  SIRES  USED  IN  GRADE  FLOCKS 452 

(a)  They  should  always  be  purely  bred. 

(b)  The  factors  that  determine  choice  in  breed. 

(c)  The  character  of  the  rams. 

5.  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  FLOCK 455 

(a)  The  three  factors  in  improvement 

(b)  The  part  played  by  the  sires. 

(c)  What  is  accomplished  by  selection. 

(d)  What  may  be  due  to  food. 

6.  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  THE  SIRES 457 

(a)  Why  successive  sires  from  the  same  breed  should 

be  chosen. 

(b)  The  time  called  for  to  reach  high  development. 

(c)  The  Minnesota  station  experiment. 

(d)  To  what  extent  in-breeding  may  be  practiced. 

7.  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  SELECTION 459 

(a)  Discard  inferior  females  before  they  are  bred. 

(b)  Ewes  that  should  be  discarded  at  the  weaning  sea- 

son. 

(c)  The  necessity  for  rejecting  some  will  always  exist. 

8.  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  FOOD 461 

(a)  Food  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  sheep. 

(b)  Food  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  breed. 

(c)  Food  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  breeding. 

9.  WHEN  CROSSING  Is  LEGITIMATE 462 

(a)  When  pure  breeds  may  be  crossed. 

(b)  Making  more  than  one  cross. 

(c)  Introducing  an  out  cross. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  XXXV11 

Pag« 

10.  BREEDING  FOR  SINGLE  OR  TWIN  LAMBS . 464 

(a)  When  to  breed  for  one  or  the  other. 

(b)  The  part  that  breeding  plays  in  such  production 

(c)  The  part  that  food  plays  in  such  production. 

11.  MUCH  SHOULD  BE  LEFT  TO  THE  GOOD  SHEPHERD 466 

(a)  His  knowledge  of  the  flock  is  most  intimate. 

(b)  Usually  he  is  a  good  judge  of  sheep. 

(c)  He  may  also  be  a  good  salesman. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 
rig.  Pagt 

1.  Panel  of  Movable  Fence  and  Headpiece 21 

2.  Southdowns  Noted  as  Mutton  Producers 34 

3.  Yearling  Rambouillets  Grown  for  Wool  and  Mutton 36 

4.  Wool  as  Classified  on  the  Sheep 70 

5.  The  Shorn  Fleece  as  Frequently  Classified 72 

6.  Feeding  Rack  for  Lambs 115 

7.  Shropshires  on  Iowa  Agricultural  College  Farm 140 

8.  A  Noted  Prize- Winning  Yearling  Shropshire  Ram 156 

9.  A  Noted  Prize- Winning  Yearling  Oxford  Down  Ram 159 

}0.  Shropshires  on  Summer  Grazing 165 

:il.  Fattening  Sheep  in  the  Willamette  Valley,  Oregon 220 

?.2.  Typical  Dorset  Horn  Ram 240 

1.3.  Iowa  College  Lambs  in  Charge  of  Keepers 258 

14.  Shearing  Sheep  by  Machinery  in  Montana 302 

15.  Plan  of  Convenient  Sheep  Rack 330 

16.  Ground  Plan  of  Sheep  Barn 342 

17.  Ground  Plan  of  Barn  with  Yard  Protection 344 

18.  Ground  Plan  of  Barn  at  Minnesota  Experiment  Station 346 

19.  Sheep  Barn  at  Minnesota  Experiment  Station 348 

20.  Loading  Sheep  for  Shipment  at  Columbus,  Montana 360 

21.  Ground  Plan  of  Dipping  Plant 434 

22.  Dipping  Vat  for  a  Small  Flock 435 

23.  Southdown  Sheep 456 


xxxlx 


CHAPTER  I 
SHEEP  AS  IMPROVERS  OF  SOIL  FERTILITY 

In  discussing  the  influence  which  sheep  exert  on  soil 
fertility,  the  following  points  will  be  considered:  (i)  Why 
the  sheep  has  a  golden  hoof;  (2)  What  sheep  remove 
from  the  soil ;  (3)  Why  the  droppings  of  sheep  are  val- 
uable; (4)  Fertilizing  poor  land  quickly  at  low  cost; 
(5)  Sheep  and  fertility  in  paddocks;  (6)  Sheep  and  fer- 
tilizer for  gardeners;  and  (7)  How  sheep  manure  may 
lose  its  fertility. 

Sheep  and  the  golden  hoof — There  are  good  reasons 
for  believing  that  long  ages  ago  the  statement  had  con- 
gealed into  a  proverb,  that  "the  sheep  has  a  golden  hoof." 
The  originator  of  the  saying  and  the  date  of  its  origin 
can  never  be  known  now.  These  have  been  lost  amid  the 
dimness  of  a  distant  past.  There  is  not  much  doubt,  how- 
ever, as  to  why  sheep  came  to  be  so  characterized.  Un- 
questionably they  were  so  designated  primarily  because 
of  the  favorable  influence  which  they  exerted  on  the  fer- 
tility of  soil  on  which  they  grazed.  But  it  would  be  cor- 
rect to  speak  of  them  also  because  of  the  service  which 
they  render  in  destroying  the  many  forms  of  weed  life, 
and  because  of  the  dual  returns  which  they  give  of  meat 
and  milk  every  season. 

That  sheep  do  add  materially  to  the  enrichment  of 
the  soils  on  which  they  graze  cannot  be  questioned,  since 
it  is  a  fact  of  general  observation.  Wherever  sheep  graze 
on  pastures  they  grow  richer  and  more  productive  rather 
than  poorer  and  less  productive,  when  grazed  under 
proper  conditions.  It  is  possible  to  graze  pastures  so 
closely  with  sheep  that  the  grasses  may  fail.  This  some- 
times happens  on  the  far  western  ranges  where  the 
grasses  have  to  fight  for  life  because  of  the  lack  of  mois- 


2    :  :^  :       MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

ture*  But  when  such  decrease  follows  in  the  yields  of  the 
grasses  it  is  not  owing  to  any  decrease  in  fertility,  as  may 
be  shown  by  increase  in  the  returns  from  pastures  prop- 
erly grazed  in  the  same  areas.  When  pastures  are  broken 
up  that  are  grazed  by  sheep,  the  growth  is  more  vigorous 
than  on  grass  pastures  beside  them  of  similar  age  and 
similarly  broken  but  that  have  not  been  so  grazed.  Even 
when  sheep  graze  amid  the  stubbles  after  grain  has  been 
harvested,  the  favorable  influence  on  the  crops  that  follow 
is  frequently  distinctly  traceable.  How  sheep  increase 
the  fertility  of  the  land  when  they  remove  fertility  in  the 
form  of  flesh,  bones  and  wool  is  explained  below. 

Sheep  are  the  inveterate  foes  of  weed  life  in 
nearly  all  of  its  forms.  The  weeds  that  sheep  will  not 
consume  upon  the  farm  are  few  indeed,  providing  they 
can  have  access  to  them  while  the  weeds  are  young. 
When  tender  and  succulent,  they  will  consume  many 
weeds  in  preference  to  grass.  Almost  the  only  class  of 
weeds  that  they  will  not  eat  when  young  are  those  that 
are  furnished  with  spines,  as  in  the  case  of  the  thistle. 
When  weeds  become  woody,  they  will  not  consume  the 
stems  unless  under  the  constraint  of  hunger,  but  they  will 
in  nearly  all  instances  consume  the  seeds.  The  excep- 
tions are  seeds  encased  in  pods  that  are  furnished  with  a 
defense  in  the  form  of  prickles,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
cocklebur  and  the  burdock.  It  would  be  very  interesting 
to  know  the  number  of  the  weeds  that  a  sheep  consumes 
in  a  day,  in  a  year,  or  in  a  lifetime  when  given  timely 
access  to  the  weeds.  Sheep  will  also  crop  down  the  young 
sprouts  that  spring  up  around  the  stumps  of  trees  that 
have  been  cut  down,  and  in  this  way  they  hasten  decay 
in  the  stumps. 

Sheep  give  a  dual  return  annually.  They  give  a  re- 
turn in  lambs  and  also  in  wool.  This  is  true  at  least  of 
the  females  that  have  reached  the  age  for  breeding.  Other 
meat-making  animals  give  a  return  in  meat,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  dairy  cow.  This  capacity  to  give  a  dual  return 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS  OF   SOIL   FERTILITY  3 

goes  far  toward  giving  the  sheep  a  foremost  place  among 
live  stock  on  the  farm  in  the  profits  which  they  give  to  the 
owner.  It  has  been  claimed  that  under  many  conditions, 
the  fleece  furnished  annually  by  the  sheep  will  pay  the 
cost  of  food  and  care  for  the  entire  year.  In  some  in- 
stances it  will  do  more  than  this,  thus  leaving  the  value 
of  the  lamb  or  lambs  produced,  less  the  food  it  has  eaten, 
as  the  net  profit.  But  that  is  not  all  the  profit,  as  will 
now  be  shown. 

When  reckoning  the  profit  from  keeping  sheep,  it  is 
legitimate,  of  course,  to  include  the  influence  which  they 
exercise  on  fertility  and  in  checking  the  growth  of  nox- 
ious forms  of  weed  life.  These  influences  are,  in  a  sense, 
intangible.  It  is  impossible  to  put  a  money  value  upon 
them,  since  no  rules  have  been  formulated  for  estimating 
exactly  the  value  of  these  influences,  nor  is  it  possible  to 
formulate  them  because  of  their  intangible  character. 
Both,  however,  are  material,  and,  especially  on  the  arable 
farm,  they  add  greatly  to  the  profits  from  keeping  sheep. 
That  sheep  are  more  profitable,  as  a  rule,  than  any  other 
quadruped  kept  on  the  arable  farm  in  proportion  to  the 
investment  and  the  labor  involved,  is  the  almost  universal 
testimony  of  those  who  have  kept  the  different  classes  of 
these  upon  the  farm. 

Fertility  removed  by  sheep — The  amount  of  fertility 
removed  by  sheep  is  relatively  small.  They  only  remove 
virtually  what  is  transformed  into  flesh,  bone  and  wool. 
In  flesh  and  wool  the  nitrogenous  element  predominates, 
and  this  when  removed  can  be  much  more  easily  replaced 
on  the  arable  farm  than  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  The 
most  serious  loss  is  that  of  phosphorus,  since  that  cannot 
be  so  easily  replaced  as  the  supply  of  nitrogen,  and  the 
supply  of  potash  in  the  soil  is  usually  relatively  more 
abundant  than  that  of  potash.  Sheep  remove  less  of  fer- 
tility from  the  farm  than  other  domestic  quadrupeds,  for 
the  reason  that  the  droppings  fall  more  constantly  on 


4  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

the  pastures,  and  for  the  further  reason  that  the  waste 
from  the  droppings  is  much  less,  as  is  shown  below. 

Notwithstanding  the  fertility  removed  by  sheep  from 
the  soil  in  the  ways  just  mentioned,  the  amount  of  avail- 
able fertility  in  lands  where  sheep  are  grazed  is  increased 
How,  it  may  be  asked,  is  this  possible  when  all  the  food 
which  they  consume  comes  from  the  soil,  and  a  part  of  it 
is  taken  away  in  the  flesh,  bone  and  wool  sold?  There  is 
also  some  loss  of  fertility  from  the  droppings  through 
washing.  The  loss  in  the  droppings  from  the  latter 
source  is  usually  slight,  especially  when  the  sheep  are  on 
the  pastures.  The  loss  of  fertility  from  other  sources 
named  is  evidently  more  than  made  up  through  fertility 
brought  up  from  the  subsoil  and  made  available  near  the 
surface.  The  roots  of  all  plants  feed  more  deeply  than  is 
usually  supposed,  including  those  of  many  of  the  grasses. 
This  will  be  at  once  apparent  to  those  who  observe  the 
length  of  the  roots  and  rootlets  suspended  from  grass 
crowns  underneath  which  the  earth  has  been  washed 
away  on  the  side  of  a  cliff  or  ravine.  They  went  far 
down  into  the  subsoil  before  they  were  thus  laid  bare. 
In  doing  so  they  gathered  food  in  the  subsoil  to  support 
growth  above  the  surface.  The  elements  of  plant  growth 
in  the  subsoil  are  thus  being  gradually  transformed  from 
inert  to  available  forms  in  the  subsoil,  and  when  thus 
transformed  are  sent  upward  to  maintain  leaf  and  stem 
growth.  These,  in  time,  when  consumed  by  sheep  are 
left  upon  the  surface  soil  for  its  enrichment.  The  fertility 
thus  carried  from  the  subsoil  to  the  surface  must  be  more 
than  the  amount  removed  in  the  carcass  and  the  wool  of 
the  sheep  grazed  on  the  pastures,  otherwise  the  fertility 
of  the  lands  thus  grazed  would  not  be  increased. 

That  lands  grazed  by  sheep  do  increase  in  available 
fertility  cannot  be  gainsaid.  The  fact  has  been  so  fre- 
quently observed  that  it  cannot  be  questioned.  Sheep 
have  grazed  upon  the  Cheviot  Hills  for  generations,  and 
on  grasses  unstimulated  by  the  addition  of  fertilizers  from 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS  OF   SOIL   FERTILITY  5 

outside  sources,  and  yet  the  pastures  on  these  hills  are 
more  rather  than  less  abundant  than  they  were  decades 
ago.  This  fact  finds  demonstration  in  the  comparison  of 
the  carrying  power  of  the  grasses.  Since  lands  that  are 
judiciously  grazed  by  sheep  from  year  to  year  become 
richer,  the  question  naturally  arises  as  to  what  will  be  the 
limit  of  the  enriching  process,  or  as  to  whether  it  has  any 
limit.  The  answer  to  both  questions  will  depend  upon 
the  amount  of  plant  food  available  and  inert  in  the  strata 
of  soil  and  subsoil  in  which  the  plants  feed.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  increase  in  fertility  through  such  graz- 
ing, at  least  where  legumes  are  absent,  comes  through 
transformation  of  fertility.  Such  transformation  relates 
first  to  change  in  form,  and  second,  to  change  in  place. 
Now,  if  the  supply  of  these  nutrients  is  sufficient  for 
indefinite  use,  there  will  be  similar  increase  in  fertility  in 
the  lands  thus  grazed.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  supply 
is  insufficient  for  such  use  indefinitely,  then  a  time  would 
come  when  the  power  of  such  lands  to  carry  sheep  would 
grow  less,  unless  aided  from  some  outside  source.  Hap- 
pily, the  supply  of  inert  plant  food  materials  in  the  soil 
is  sufficient  to  sustain  plant  growth  indefinitely,  in  some 
forms  at  least,  otherwise  the  prairies  could  not  have  main- 
tained for  long  centuries  in  undiminished  volume  the 
grasses  that  grow  upon  them. 

Sheep  manure  valuable — The  droppings  of  sheep  are 
valuable,  first,  because  of  the  chemical  constituents ;  sec- 
ond, because  of  the  readily  available  condition ;  third,  be- 
cause of  the  even  way  in  which  they  are  distributed  on 
the  soil ;  and  fourth,  because  they  are  distributed  where 
most  needed.  In  all  of  these  respects  it  would  probably 
be  correct  to  say  that  the  droppings  of  sheep  are  more 
valuable  than  the  droppings  of  any  other  class  of  quadru- 
peds kept  upon  the  farm.  This  is  certainly  true  when 
these  influences  are  considered  together. 

The  analyses  of  the  fertilizer  obtained  from  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  domestic  animals  will,  of  course,  vary  with 


6  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

the  food  fed.  For  this  and  other  reasons  it  would  be 
only  possible  to  state  approximately  the  relative  value  of 
these.  Roberts  has  given  much  thought  to  this  question 
and  his  investigations  have  led  him  to  conclude  that  the 
average  value  of  a  ton  of  farm  manures  from  horses,  cows, 
sheep  and  swine  ranks  as  follows: 

Horses $2.49 

Cows 2.43 

Sheep 4.25 

Swine    3.20 

In  this  estimate  the  nitrogen  in  the  manure  is  rated 
at  15  cents  a  pound,  the  phosphoric  acid  at  7  cents  and  the 
potash  at  4^2  cents.  The  superior  value  of  sheep  manure 
is  thus  clearly  apparent  from  the  standpoint  of  chemical 
analysis.  Add  to  this  the  other  points  of  superiority,  and 
the  showing  is  very  pronounced  in  favor  of  sheep  manure. 

The  readily  available  condition  in  which  the  drop- 
pings of  sheep  are  found  adds  greatly  to  their  value. 
When  they  fall  on  the  soil  it  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
detached  particles.  These  come  in  close  contact  with  the 
soil.  The  first  shower  which  falls  upon  them  carries 
down  more  or  less  of  the  manurial  constituents  into  the 
soil.  This  is  all  the  more  readily  accomplished  because  of 
the  finer  and  more  thorough  grinding  which  sheep  give 
to  their  food  than  other  domestic  quadrupeds.  The  drop- 
pings of  other  animals  fall  in  masses,  hence  much  of  their 
bulk  does  not  come  in  close  contact  with  the  soil.  The 
loss  from  these,  therefore,  by  washing  and  leaching  is 
much  greater  than  from  the  droppings  of  sheep.  It  is 
also  much  greater  from  oxidation  and  from  pests  that 
prey  upon  them. 

As  the  droppings  of  horses  and  cattle  fall  in  masses, 
they  destroy  vegetation  beneath  them,  and  they  overfer- 
tilize  the  ground  for  a  short  distance  around,  and  there 
is  also  waste  from  the  causes  named.  But  the  droppings 
of  sheep  scatter  when  they  fall.  Sheep  travel  much  when 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS  OF   SOIL   FERTILITY  7 

they  graze,  and  because  they  do  they  distribute  their 
droppings  much  more  evenly  over  the  entire  area  grazed 
than  other  classes  of  stock.  Because  of  this,  it  would 
probably  be  correct  to  say  that  sheep  while  grazing  will 
distribute  manure  about  as  effectively  and  as  evenly  as 
though  it  had  been  distributed  by  a  manure  spreader. 
This  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  manure,  since  the 
cost  of  drawing  and  distributing  farmyard  manure  is 
relatively  high,  sometimes  so  high  as  to  make  its  use 
prohibitory  when  it  has  to  be  drawn  far. 

The  droppings  are  also  distributed  by  sheep  where 
they  are  most  needed.  Sheep  instinctively  seek  the 
higher  ground  when  they  are  at  rest.  Because  of  this, 
the  proportion  of  the  droppings  left  on  these  is  usually 
much  greater  than  that  left  on  the  lower  lands.  The  lat- 
ter are  usually  much  less  in  need  of  fertility  than  the 
former,  hence  the  distribution  thus  effected  fertilizes  most 
the  land  that  is  most  in  need  of  fertilization. 

Sheep  and  quick  fertilization — Lands  low  in  fertility 
may  be  quickly  fertilized  by  grazing  sheep  on  them  un- 
der certain  conditions  of  management.  The  grazing  will 
in  itself  add  to  the  available  fertility,  even  though  the 
food  eaten  should  be  only  grass.  It  will  add  more  quickly 
to  the  available  fertility  if  the  land  is  plowed  and  some 
crop  is  sown  on  it  to  provide  grazing.  The  more  fre- 
quently such  crops  are  sown,  the  more  will  be  the  increase 
in  the  available  fertility,  even  in  the  absence  of  applied 
fertilizers,  hence  the  wisdom  in  trying  to  grow  more  than 
one  crop  on  such  land  each  season. 

Whether  the  grazing  is  furnished  by  grasses  or 
grains,  the  fertilizing  may  be  much  hastened  by  feeding 
concentrates  to  the  sheep  thus  grazed.  This  may  some- 
times be  done  with  profit  when  grazing  sheep  are  suckling 
their  lambs.  It  may  usually  be  done  with  profit  when 
grazing  sheep  that  are  being  fattened.  The  fertilization 
thus  added  is  proportionate  to  the  richness  in  manurial 
elements  of  the  foods  and  to  the  amount  of  the  same. 


8  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

The  fertilization  may  be  hastened  by  the  judicious 
use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  When  these  are  applied  in 
addition  to  the  concentrates  fed,  the  increase  in  fertility 
will  be  proportionate  under  normal  conditions.  When 
these  influences  act  in  conjunction,  the  fertilization  is 
rapid,  and  it  is  virtually  without  waste,  especially  when 
grass  pastures  are  thus  grazed.  As  the  grasses  that 
cover  the  soil  almost  entirely  prevent  waste  in  the  fer- 
tilizer applied,  there  is  not  only  increase  in  the  top 
growth  from  the  application  of  the  fertilizer,  but  there 
is  proportionate  increase  in  the  root  growth,  a  fact  of 
much  significance  when  the  pastures  are  broken,  be- 
cause of  the  extent  to  which  root  growth  adds  fertility 
to  the  soil.  There  is  probably  no  method  that  will  im- 
prove worn  lands  more  quickly  and  more  cheaply  with 
reference  to  fertilization  and  also  to  their  mechanical  con- 
dition. 

Such  a  method  of  fertilizing  arable  lands  distant 
from  the  farmsteading  is  entirely  practicable,  and  it  is 
eminently  satisfactory.  It  would  be  too  costly  to  ferti- 
lize them  by  applying  farmyard  manure,  because  of  the 
cost  of  labor  involved.  Fertilization  through  commercial 
fertilizers  would  be  slower  and  less  satisfactory.  When 
practiced  as  outlined,  it  should  be  safe,  relatively,  cheap 
and  eminently  satisfactory. 

Sheep  and  fertility  in  paddocks — A  sheep  paddock,  as 
is  generally  known,  is  a  small  inclosure  located  near  the 
farmsteading,  more  roomy  than  a  yard  and  much  less  so 
than  a  field.  It  is,  in  a  way,  an  indispensable  adjunct  of  the 
arable  farm.  It  furnishes  in  summer  grazing  grounds  for 
temporary  use  or  for  the  more  permanent  occupancy  of 
rams  or  of  other  animals  that  may  be  in  the  process  of 
fitting  for  shows.  It  may  also  in  some  instances  be  de- 
voted to  the  growing  of  soiling  foods  or  of  pastures  other 
than  grasses.  When  used,  as  they  sometimes  are  in  win- 
ter, as  yards  for  feeding  certain  fodders,  the  soil  becomes 
very  rich,  and  in  consequence  it  becomes  well  fitted  for 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS  OF   SOIL   FERTILITY  9 

the  kinds  of  production  just  referred  to.  When  soiling 
food  is  grown  for  sheep,  it  is  greatly  important,  as  a 
matter  of  economy  in  labor,  that  it  shall  be  grown  near 
at  hand  to  where  it  is  to  be  fed.  The  feeding  of  such 
foods  to  sheep  is  usually  limited  to  the  needs  of  those 
that  are  being  fitted  for  the  shows,  hence  a  limited  area 
such  as  a  paddock  furnishes  will  usually  suffice  for  such  a 
use.  Paddocks,  because  of  the  richness  of  the  soil 
through  the  droppings  of  the  sheep,  and  because  of  their 
proximity  to  the  sheds,  have  pre-eminent  adaptation  for 
the  growing  of  such  foods. 

In  the  winter  or  after  the  ground  has  become  frozen, 
certain  fodders  are  sometimes  fed  in  one  or  more  of  these 
paddocks.  They  are  simply  strewn  over  the  ground  from 
day  to  day,  and  the  place  of  strewing  is  changed  daily. 
They  are  thus  fed,  in  part,  as  a  matter  of  convenience, 
and  also  in  some  instances  to  encourage  the  sheep  to 
take  exercise  while  picking  them  over.  Corn  and  sor- 
ghum fodders  are  frequently  fed  thus.  When  so  fed,  un- 
less when  they  are  present  in  excessive  quantities,  the 
most  convenient  way  to  get  rid  of  them  is  to  bury  them 
with  the  plow.  In  this  way  the  removing  of  a  product 
that  is  difficult  to  handle  is  obviated,  and  the  soil  becomes 
filled  with  humus  imbedded  in  the  rich  covering  of  fer- 
tility that  encircles  it.  When  the  seed  of  soiling  crops  is 
sown  on  such  land,  the  growth  is  usually  of  a  most  vig- 
orous kind. 

The  occasional  plowing  of  paddocks  has  the  further  ad- 
vantage  that  it  renders  them  much  less  liable  to  harbor 
disease  in  certain  forms.  It  is  thought,  and  with  much 
countenance  of  support,  that  the  hazard  to  sheep  from 
grazing  in  paddocks  is  much  reduced  when  the  soil  is 
frequently  turned  over  with  the  plow.  It  has  been  thought 
tnat  the  germs  of  such  ailments  as  tapeworm  and  stom- 
ach worm  are  sometimes  taken  into  the  stomachs  of 
lambs  by  grazing  on  the  vegetation  of  paddocks  that  have 
not  recently  been  plowed. 


IO  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

Sheep  and  fertilizer  for  gardeners — As  is  well  known, 
gardeners  require  a  large  amount  of  fertilizers.  In  some 
instances  they  have  found  that  they  can  obtain  it  more 
cheaply  by  feeding  sheep  in  winter  than  in  any  other  way. 
It  may  be ;  in  fact,  it  usually  is,  that  both  the  food  and  the 
sheep  are  purchased.  In  the  fattening  process  large 
quantities  of  the  fertilizer  are  made  and  so  near  to  the 
place  of  application  that,  when  all  things  are  taken  into 
account,  it  is  much  more  profitable  to  obtain  it  thus  than 
by  purchase  in  the  adjacent  towns  or  cities. 

Some  localities  are  much  better  adapted  to  such  feed- 
ing than  others.  Where  it  is  to  be  markedly  successful, 
the  sheep  must  be  obtainable  at  reasonable  prices,  and 
they  should  be  brought  to  the  farm  without  incurring 
undue  outlay,  as  the  price  of  transportation.  Suitable 
food  must  be  obtainable  without  excessive  cost.  The  in- 
dividual who  feeds  should  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
his  business.  When  the  animals  so  fed  are  marketed,  it. 
should  be  with  the  best  judgment.  Thus  handled,  there 
should  be  some  profit  on  the  sheep  in  addition  to  the  fer- 
tilizer. 

The  profit,  as  in  all  fattening,  may  not  come  from  the 
increase  made  in  weight  during  the  fattening  process,  but 
from  increase  in  the  weight  of  the  animal  when  the  fat- 
tening process  began.  The  person  who  must  purchase 
all  his  food  will  make  less  profit  as  a  rule  than  the  individ- 
ual who  grows  at  least  a  part  of  it.  But,  in  any  event, 
safe  buying  and  selling  of  the  sheep  and  careful,  judicious 
purchasing  and  feeding  of  the  foods  should  result  in  some 
cash  profit  from  the  venture ;  thus  furnishing  the  manure 
without  other  cost  than  that  involved  in  applying  it.  This 
to  the  gardener  should  prove  a  great  boon,  as  the  fer- 
tilizer thus  furnished  would  add  greatly  to  the  efficacy  of 
the  action  of  commercial  fertilizers  when  these  also  are 
used. 

Fertilizer  from  sheep  is  in  some  instances  made  in 
very  large  quantities  in  feeding  centers  where  sheep  are 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS  OF   SOIL   FERTILITY  II 

fed  in  a  large  way.  Very  much  of  what  has  been  thus 
made  in  the  past  has  been  wasted,  owing  to  the  cost  of 
carrying  it  to  farms  and  gardens  where  it  is  needed. 
Much  of  the  precious  substance,  in  the  far  West  especially, 
has  been  drawn  out  in  trainloads  and  dumped  into 
ravines  as  the  best  way  of  disposing  of  it.  The  fertilizer 
thus  made  is  rich  in  the  elements  of  fertility,  as  in  making 
it  the  sheep  are  fed  chiefly  on  concentrated  food.  Much 
of  the  grain  thus  fed  is  given  as  screenings,  especially  in 
the  West,  and  as  these  are  fed  in  the  unground  form,  the 
manure  contains  many  weed  seeds,  the  vitality  of  which 
has  not  been  destroyed.  These  have  not  been  consumed 
by  the  sheep,  but  have  been  dropped  by  them  while  tak- 
ing their  food.  Their  presence  makes  it  so  far  undesir- 
able for  gardeners. 

Fertilizer  is  sometimes  obtained  from  the  western 
ranges  where  sheep  have  been  corralled  and  wintered  for 
successive  years.  This  product  is  sometimes  known  as 
sheep  guano.  It  contains  much  plant  food,  relatively,  as 
it  has  lost  but  little  in  manurial  constituents  through 
leaching,  and  it  is  almost  devoid  of  admixture  of  such  sub- 
stances as  litter  and  earth.  In  some  instances  these  ac- 
cumulations have  assumed  large  proportions,  but  they 
have  frequently  become  much  deteriorated  through  age. 
Notwithstanding  they  have  been  shipped  more  or  less 
freely  to  the  East,  where  they  have  been  used  by  garden- 
ers, more  especially  by  those  engaged  in  growing  products 
of  the  greenhouse.  The  cost  of  transportation  has 
proved  restrictive  to  the  trade. 

How  sheep  manure  takes  harm — Sheep  manure,  like 
that  from  other  animals,  may  be  injured  by  leaching,  as  in 
yards  where  sheep  are  wintered  it  is  usually  spread  over 
much  surface  area  relatively.  In  such  instances  the  loss 
from  this  source  is  serious  where  the  rains  are  frequent, 
hence  the  wisdom  of  applying  it  under  such  conditions 
as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  made. 

Sheep  manure  is  also  frequently  injured  by  molds. 


12  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

These  are  caused  by  undue  heat  in  the  manure  in  the  ab- 
sence of  moisture.  This  heated  condition  of  the  manure 
is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "fire  fang."  The  hazard  of  loss 
from  this  source  is  much  greater  when  the  manure  is  un- 
der cover  than  when  it  is  exposed  to  the  elements.  The 
mold  usually  assumes  a  white  color  in  sheep  manure.  It 
has  then  lost  nearly  all  its  nitrogen,  and  its  value  in  other 
respects  has  become  greatly  lessened.  Sheep  manure  un- 
der cover  is  much  liable  to  become  thus  affected  owing  to 
the  relatively  small  amount  of  liquid  in  the  voidings. 

'  To  get  the  best  possible  value  from  sheep  manure  it 
should  be  applied  to  the  land  in  the  fresh  form,  and  as 
soon  as  possible  after  it  is  made.  That,  of  course,  holds 
true  of  all  manure,  but  it  is  pre-eminently  true  of  manure 
made  by  sheep.  When  allowed  to  mold  so  that  the  mold 
permeates  the  mass,  it  will  not  repay  the  labor  of  apply- 
ing it. 

The  cost  of  applying  manure  made  by  sheep  is,  in  the 
aggregate,  considerably  less  than  in  the  case  of  other  ani- 
mals. This  is  owing  to  the  longer  period  relatively  dur- 
ing which  they  remain  in  the  pasture.  In  the  autumn 
they  are  frequently  grazed  for  several  weeks  after  cattle 
have  been  confined  to  the  yards,  and  usually  they  are 
turned  out  to  graze  for  two  to  four  weeks  after  cattle 
have  been  confined  to  the  yards,  and  generally  they  are 
turned  out  to  graze  from  two  to  three  weeks  earlier  in  the 
spring.  This,  of  course,  adds  to  the  value  of  sheep  as  fer- 
tilizers of  the  land. 


CHAPTER  II 

SHEEP  AS  SCAVENGERS  AND  IMPROVERS  OF 
CROP  YIELDS 

In  Chapter  II  the  discussion  dwells  upon  the  follow- 
ing: (i)  Sheep  as  weed  destroyers;  (2)  Freeing  land 
from  weeds  by  sheep ;  (3)  Sheep  as  destroyers  of  brush ; 

(4)  Improving  grain  yields  through  grazing  with  sheep ; 

(5)  Improving  the  stand  of  grass  by  such  grazing;  (6) 
Improving  clover  seed  yields  through  grazing;  (7)  Why 
sheep  should  be  kept  on  nearly  all  farms ;  and  (8)  Sheep 
and  fresh  meat  on  the  farm.     The  great  service  which 
they  may  render  in  all  these  ways  is  too  little  understood. 
Their  ability  to  render  it  is  largely  the  outcome  of  that 
instinct  which  prompts  them  to  feed  upon  a  wide  variety 
of  food.    They  have  been  known  to  winter  upon  seaweed, 
even  in  stern  maritime  climates,  and  in  these  they  have 
in  some  instances   been  fed  considerable   quantities  of 
dried  fish. 

Sheep  as  weed  destroyers — The  value  of  sheep  as 
weed  destroyers  has  seldom  been  taken  at  its  true  worth. 
The  varieties  of  weeds  that  sheep  will  not  consume  are 
few,  providing  they  may  have  access  to  them  when  they 
are  young,  and  when  consuming  the  weeds  they  also 
transform  them  into  useful  mutton.  The  weeds  thus  con- 
sumed that  taint  mutton  offensively  are  few  indeed. 
Among  the  number  are  pennycress  (Thalaspi  arvense) 
and  the  wild  onion  (A  Ilium  vine  ale). 

Among  the  common  noxious  weeds  that  they  do  not  care 
to  eat,  are  the  mullein  and  the  burdock,  and  such  forms  of 
weed  life  as  are  protected  by  spines  or  prickles.  But  they  will 
frequently  consume  weeds  thus  protected  when  they  are 
young,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Russian  thistle  (Salsola  Kali,  var. 
tragus).  The  number  of  the  weeds  that  they  will  consume 

13 


14  MANAGEMENT    AND    FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

is  legion.  But  sheep  consume  weeds  much  more  readily 
when  they  are  young  than  when  they  reach  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  growth.  Succulence  in  plants  is  especially  grateful 
to  sheep,  and  woodiness  in  the  same  is  equally  distasteful  to 
them.  For  instance,  they  will  readily  consume  squirrel  tail 
(Hordeum  jubatum)  and  foxtail  (Setaria  glauca)  when 
young,  but  when  these  reach  an  advanced  stage  of  growth, 
they  will  almost  starve  rather  than  feed  upon  them.  They 
show  a  decided  preference  for  some  forms  of  weed  life  as 
compared  even  with  the  useful  grasses  when  the  former 
are  in  the  zenith  of  their  succulence.  Allow  the  same  weeds 
to  reach  the  woody  stage  and  they  will  not  eat  them.  Such 
are  the  weeds  popularly  known  as  pigweed  (Amaranthus 
hybridus),  and  lamb's-quarters  (Chenopedium  album). 

But  in  many  instances,  after  weeds  have  become  so 
woody  that  sheep  will  not  consume  them,  they  will  strip 
them  of  their  leaves  and  thus  prevent  them  from  maturing 
seeds.  There  are  but  few  classes  of  weed  seeds  that  they 
will  not  consume  when  given  access  to  them,  hence  the  im- 
mense service  that  they  may  render  in  grain  fields  after  the 
crop  has  been  harvested.  Among  the  exceptions  are  those 
protected  by  stiff  hair,  as  foxtail ;  and  by  prickles  and  spines, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  cocklebur  (Xanthium  canadense)  and 
the  sand  bur  (Cenchrus  tribuloides). 

Because  of  this  weed-eating  habit,  sheep  may  be  made 
to  render  much  service  in  pastures,  even  when  gleaning  along 
with  other  live  stock.  Many  forms  of  weed  life  grow  amid 
pastures  betimes  which  cattle  and  horses  will  not  consume 
at  any  stage  of  their  growth.  When  sheep  may  have  access 
to  these,  they  trim  them  down  proportionately  to  their  num- 
bers, and  in  many  instances  will  in  time  cause  them  to  dis- 
appear. In  this  way  such  intruders  in  pastures  as  briers  and 
bushes  of  various  kinds  may  be  destroyed,  as  well  as  plants 
more  properly  classified  as  weeds.  In  pastures  on  timber 
lands  newly  cleared  sheep  may  be  thus  made  to  render  most 
valuable  service  by  destroying  the  sprouts  that  grow  amid 
the  trees. 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS   OF    CROP    YIELDS  15 

When  sheep  may  glean  amid  the  stubbles  from  which 
grain  crops  have  been  removed,  they  not  only  gather  the 
heads  of  the  fallen  grain  more  or  less,  but  they  feed  upon 
the  weeds  which  have  grown  among  the  same.  Even  though 
they  should  reject  the  stalk,  almost  invariably  they  will  con- 
sume the  seeds.  The  seeds  of  some  weeds  when  sufficiently 
numerous  aid  materially  in  fattening  them.  Such  is  wild 
buckwheat  (Polygonum  convolvulus),  which  grows  so 
abundantly  in  the  grain  fields  of  the  northwestern  prairies. 
The  service  which  sheep  may  thus  be  made  to  render  grain- 
growing  farmers  is  very  great.  When  such  crops  as  dwarf 
essex  rape  and  fall  turnips  have  been  sown  along  with  the 
grain,  the  profits  from  such  grazing  usually  are  greatly  en- 
hanced. 

Sheep  may  be  made  to  profitably  consume  weeds  that 
grow  amid  standing  corn  under  certain  conditions  of  growth, 
without  any  injury  to  the  corn.  These  conditions  call  for 
corn  of  sufficient  height  to  produce  ears  reasonably  high 
from  the  ground,  and  that  has  not  been  too  far  bent  over 
by  storms.  As  is  generally  known  in  seasons  of  much  rain- 
fall, weeds  may  grow  luxuriantly  after  the  last  cultivation 
given  to  the  corn,  and  unless  eaten  down  before  the  corn  is 
harvested  many  of  them  may  mature  their  seeds.  For  such 
grazing  lambs  have  higher  adaptation  than  sheep,  since  they 
are  much  less  liable  to  disturb  the  corn. 

Lambs  are  usually  weaned  about  the  time  that  such 
grazing  is  ready.  The  corn  stalks  furnish  a  grateful  shade 
for  the  lambs.  While  thus  gleaning  they  will,  when  suffi- 
ciently numerous,  clean  out  the  weeds.  They  may  also  trim 
off  the  lower  leaves  of  the  corn,  but  the  corn  crop  will  not 
be  harmed  by  such  trimming.  Usually  they  will  not  disturb 
the  ears  as  long  as  other  food  is  plentiful. 

There  is  no  place  probably  wherein  sheep  will  render 
better  service  than  when  allowed  to  glean  amid  the  by-places 
of  the  farm.  These  include  such  places  as  paddocks,  lanes, 
fence  borders,  nooks  and  corners  around  outbuildings,  and 
even  around  the  dwelling,  front  and  rear,  in  the  absence  of 


^6  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

flowers  and  shrubs.  They  may  even  in  certain  instances  ren- 
der good  service  when  gleaning  in  groves  and  belts  planted 
for  protection.  It  is  in  such  places  that  weeds  are  more 
liable  to  become  entrenched  and  to  escape  destruction,  since, 
if  destroyed  otherwise  than  by  sheep,  hand  labor  is  involved, 
and  usually  at  a  season  when  such  labor  cannot  well  be 
spared.  When  the  vegetation  on  these  by-places  is  neglected, 
it  not  only  means  that  mischievous  forms  of  weed  life  grow- 
to  maturity,  but  they  give  the  farm  an  unkempt  appearance 
that  is  repelling.  The  difference  between  a  nicely  grazed 
lane  and  one  rank  with  weed  life  is  very  marked,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  other  nooks  and  corners.  When  sheep  have 
timely  and  sufficient  access  to  these,  almost  without  any  aid 
they  will  keep  them  so  trimmed  that  they  will  present  a  neat 
appearance.  When  the  sheep  are  thus  employed,  they  will 
be  consuming  a  variety  of  food  which  is  much  helpful  to 
their  well  being.  Sheep  thus  grazed  are  usually  fat,  and 
their  summer  food  is  obtained  without  cost. 

Nowhere  probably  can  sheep  render  better  service  than 
when  grazing  on  fallow  land  when  it  is  infested  with  weed 
life.  Under  some  conditions  there  would  be  little  or  no 
food  for  sheep  on  land  that  is  summer-fallowed,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  the  land  is  frequently  plowed  while  lying  fallow 
or  frequently  cultivated  after  it  has  been  plowed.  Under 
other  conditions  much  food  is  furnished,  especially  on 
western  prairies  where  weed  growth  is  very  rapid  in  the 
summer.  When  sheep  can  have  access  to  such  lands  they 
will  crop  down  weeds  that  might  otherwise  go  to  seed.  The 
presence  of  sheep  in  sufficient  numbers  would  reduce  the 
amount  of  cultivation  that  would  otherwise  be  called  for. 
and  the  grazing  would  tend  to  impact  the  soil,  which  would 
in  many  instances  prove  a  material  aid  when  growing  the 
succeeding  grain  crop.  If,  at  the  proper  time,  which  would 
not  be  later  than  the  end  of  June,  three  pounds  of  rape  seed 
were  sown  per  acre  and  covered  with  a  stroke  of  the  har- 
row, the  grazing  furnished  by  the  same  would  in  many  in- 
stances fatten  10  to  15  sheep  or  lambs,  and  with  benefit 


SHEEP   AS  IMPROVERS   OF    CROP   YIELDS  17 

rather  than  injury  to  the  crop  that  would  follow.  Any 
weeds  growing  up  amid  the  rape  would  be  consumed  by  the 
sheep.  The  only  real  hazard  incurred  would  be  the  possi- 
bility of  having  too  much  straw  in  the  grain  crop  that  would 
follow,  because  of  the  fertility  left  on  the  surface  of  the  soil 
by  the  sheep. 

Freeing  lands  from  weeds — Many  kinds  of  weeds 
may  be  eradicated  by  simply  growing  crops  in  close  suc- 
cession and  grazing  them  down  with  sheep.  When  thus 
grazed  the  land  is  divided  by  fences,  portable  or  other- 
wise, so  that  the  grazing  may  be  conducted  in  alternation 
on  the  different  inclosures.  The  succession  of  crops  is  so 
close  that  each  division  of  the  land  is  made  to  produce 
two  and  in  some  instances  three  crops  in  one  season. 
The  crops  thus  grown  are  annuals,  and  some  mature  so 
quickly  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  catch  crops  when 
thus  grown.  But  it  is  necessary  while  grazing  sheep  thus 
to  have  a  grass  pasture  in  reserve  on  which  the  sheep 
may  be  grazed  when  the  wet  condition  of  the  ground  may 
make  it  inadvisable  to  continue  the  grazing  on  the  lands 
on  which  the  crops  are  grown  in  succession. 

The  crops  best  adapted  for  such  grazing  will  depend 
to  a  considerable  degree  on  the  conditions  that  relate  to 
soil  and  climate.  Soils  low  in  adaptation  are  those  classed 
as  clay,  because  vegetation  on  these  grows  slowly  and 
they  impact  readily  if  grazed  when  wet.  Nor  do  light 
sands  rank  high  for  such  a  use,  because  of  the  amount  of 
fertilization  which  they  require  to  produce  good  grazing, 
especially  when  the  grazing  of  these  is  first  begun.  Loam 
soils,  and  especially  sandy  loams,  have  highest  adaptation 
for  being  thus  grazed. 

In  the  north  the  crops  that  may  be  grown  thus  in- 
clude rye,  mixed  grains,  rape,  cabbage,  corn  and  sorghum. 
In  the  central  states,  cowpeas  and  soy  beans  may  be 
added  to  the  list.  In  the  far  western  states,  kale  and 
vetches  may  be  added,  but  not  soy  beans  and  cowpeas. 
In  the  Atlantic  states,  the  list  may  include  all  those 


l8  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

named  and  in  addition  crimson  clover,  but  the  sand  vetch 
would  grow  rather  than  the  common  vetch  grown  in  the 
West.  In  the  southern  states,  the  list  is  a  long  one.  It 
includes  winter  rye,  certain  of  the  cereals,  the  sand  or 
hairy  vetch,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  velvet  beans,  corn  and 
the  sorghums,  rape,  cabbage  and  kale. 

The  succession  in  which  these  crops  should  be  grown 
will  depend  largely  on  natural  adaptation.  Certain  of 
them,  as  winter  rye,  the  sand  vetch  and  crimson  clover, 
grow  best  in  the  early  spring.  Others,  as  corn,  the  sor- 
ghums, cowpeas,  soy  beans  and  velvet  beans,  grow  best 
in  the  summer ;  and  yet  others,  as  rape,  cabbage  and  kale, 
are  naturally  at  their  best  in  the  autumn. 

The  following  are  prominent  among  the  benefits  that 
follow  such  grazing :  First,  noxious  weeds  that  infest  the 
soil  are  removed  from  it,  in  some  instances  entirely,  and 
in  all  instances  the  reduction  is  marked.  The  complete- 
ness of  the  removal  effected  will  depend  on  the  class  of 
the  weeds  and  the  ways  in  which  they  propagate,  on  the 
kind  or  kinds  of  the  forage  crops  and  on  the  manner  of 
growing  them. 

This  system  of  grazing  will  soon  destroy  all  biennial 
weeds,  as  weeds  of  this  class  will  soon  succumb  to  culti- 
vation so  intensive.  It  will  also  reduce  the  most  trouble- 
some perennials  to  such  an  extent  in  two  or  three  seasons 
that  the  labor  of  removing  by  hand  any  plants  that  may 
grow  later  becomes  easily  practicable.  This  reduction  is 
effected  through  the  germination  of  the  weed  seeds  lying 
in  the  soil.  The  frequent  stirring  given  to  the  soil 
hastens  the  germination  and  the  weeds  thus  started  are 
cared  for  by  the  sheep.  The  eradication  of  perennials 
may  take  longer,  but  in  most  instances  the  frequent 
stirring  of  the  soil,  the  cropping  down  of  the  young  plants 
and  the  smothering  influence  of  the  pasture  crops  will 
bring  about  the  desired  results. 

Each  kind  of  forage  crop  is  more  hurtful  to  the 
growth  of  some  weeds  than  to  the  growth  of  others.  By 


SHEEP    AS   IMPROVERS   OF    CROP    YIELDS  19 

changing  the  succession  in  the  crops,  it  is  easily  possible  to 
cripple  all  kinds  of  weeds  in  their  growth,  by  growing  those 
crops  which  will  best  effect  the  end  sought  in  each  in- 
stance. Some  crops  grow  more  quickly  than  others,  and 
in  doing  so  make  grazing  possible  at  a  time  that  will  do 
most  harm  to  the  weeds.  Some  crowd  weeds  more  than 
others,  and  some  furnish  the  opportunity  for  attacking 
weeds  to  a  greater  extent  than  others  in  the  preparation 
of  soil  called  for  and  also  in  the  time  when  such  prepara- 
tion should  be  given.  When  these  influences  are  given 
due  attention,  the  destroying  process  will  be  proportion- 
ately hastened. 

The  method  by  which  these  crops  are  grown  has  an 
important  bearing  on  the  destruction  of  weed  life.  Grow- 
ing crops  that  call  for  harrowing  after  the  planting  season 
will  result  in  destroying  more  weeds  than  growing  crops 
that  do  not  call  for  such  treatment,  and  growing  those 
that  call  for  both  harrowing  and  cultivating  will  prove 
even  more  effective  in  the  removal  of  weeds.  Careful 
cultivation  given  to  forage  crops  while  they  are  grow- 
ing will  be  more  effective  in  destroying  perennial  weeds 
than  other  forms  of  weed  life. 

Second,  the  weeds  that  grow  are  transformed  into  mut- 
ton during  the  cleaning  process.  Other  classes  of  live  stock 
are  much  prone  to  reject  weeds,  and  consequently  when  the 
effort  is  made  to  destroy  them  they  are  seldom  turned  to  any 
good  use.  It  may  not  be  possible  to  make  high-class  mutton 
from  weeds  alone,  but  experience  has  abundantly  proved  that 
excellent  mutton  can  be  made  from  forage  crops  grown  as 
outlined  and  the  weeds  that  grow  along  with  them. 

Third,  the  land  is  fertilized  while  thus  being  grazed. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  content  of  its  fertility  in  the  soil 
and  subsoil  is  increased,  but  that  the  fertility  in  the  subsoil, 
or  at  least  a  part  of  it,  is  transformed  from  inert  into  avail- 
able forms,  and  is  brought  from  the  subsoil  and  incorporated 
in  the  surface  soil,  in  which  it  is  readily  accessible  to  the 
roots  of  the  crops  that  may  be  sown.  The  accumulation  of 


2O  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

fertility  in  the  surface  soil  thus  becomes  more  rapid  than  the 
depletion  of  the  same  through  the  fertility  removed  in  the 
flesh  and  in  the  wool  of  the  sheep  sold  that  have  been  thus 
grazed.  If  there  is  any  loss  of  fertility,  it  is  in  the  subsoil 
rather  than  in  the  surface  soil. 

Fourth,  the  soil  is  left  in  a  condition  which  makes  it 
practicable  to  prepare  it  for  a  crop  that  is  to  follow  at  a 
minimum  expenditure  of  labor.  The  grazing  last  grown  is 
usually  eaten  down  to  the  ground.  The  soil  is  in  a  great 
measure  free  from  all  forms  of  weed  growth.  The  richest 
portion  of  the  cultivable  area  is  that  which  is  near  the  sur- 
face, because  of  the  recent  distribution  of  the  droppings  on 
the  same.  It  is  important  that  they  shall  be  kept  near  the 
surface,  hence  in  preparing  such  land  for  the  succeeding 
crop,  the  disk  will  usually  answer  the  purpose  better  than 
the  plow,  hence  the  labor  called  for  is  less  than  if  the  land 
were  plowed. 

Fifth,  this  method  of  grazing  sheep  tends  to  protect 
them  from  some  forms  of  parasitical  disease.  For  instance, 
it  is  about  certain  that  it  tends  to  shield  lambs  from  attack 
by  tapeworms,  and  stomach  worms.  When  the  dams  are 
not  allowed  to  graze  on  old  pasture  lands  in  the  spring,  it  is 
believed  that  lambs  thus  grazed  with  their  dams  will  not  usu- 
ally be  attacked  with  these  ailments.  If  this  belief  should  be 
sustained  in  all  instances,  it  will  bring  within  the  reach  of 
the  flock  master  an  easily  practicable  method  of  protecting 
his  flock  from  infestation. 

Sixth,  grazing  sheep  thus  tends  to  increase  the  revenue 
from  the  land.  This  arises  from  the  marked  increase  in 
the  production  of  wool  and  mutton  as  compared  with  pro- 
duction from  the  same  under  the  usual  conditions  that  at- 
tend the  grazing  of  sheep.  The  expense  of  production  where 
the  management  is  judicious,  should  be  less  relatively  than 
under  ordinary  methods  of  grazing,  though  much  more  in 
the  aggregate.  Experiments  conducted  to  show  a  compara- 
tive profit  from  such  a  system  of  grazing  as  compared  with 
grazing  on  grass  pastures  only  have  not  come  to  the  knowl- 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS   OF   CROP   YIELDS  21 

edge  of  the  author,  but  the  profits  should  certainly  be  satis- 
factory where  the  management  is  judicious. 

There  are,  of  course,  some  objections  to  grazing  sheep 
thus.  One  is  found  in  the  labor  involved  at  a  busy  season  of 
the  year.  There  is  first,  the  work  of  preparing  the  land  for 
each  successive  crop  and  sowing  it;  second,  the  labor  in- 
volved, it  may  be,  in  cultivating  some  of  the  crops;  third, 
the  labor  of  taking  the  sheep  to  and  from  the  pastures,  and 
fourth,  the  work  of  removing  and  putting  up  frequently  such 
portions  of  the  fences  as  are  movable  when  movable  fences 
are  used. 

A  second  objection  is  found  in  the  outlay  for  fencing. 
While  it  is,  of  course,  practicable  to  introduce  this  system  of 
grazing  on  any  arable  farm  and  on  any  portion  of  it  where 
introduced  on  a  large  scale,  the  arrangement  of  the  fences 
with  reference  to  the  grazing  is  a  matter  of  prime  impor- 
tance. When  planning  any  system  of  grazing  through  grow- 
ing crops  in  succession,  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  one  plot 


1 

1 

II 

1  

1 

u 

II 

1 

1 

II 

I 

1 

FIG.   1— PANEL   OF  MOVABLE   FENCE  AND   HEADPIECE 

or  field  long  in  proportion  to  the  width,  in  order  that  the 
outlay  for  the  cross  fences,  movable  or  otherwise,  should 
be  relatively  low.  If  two  such  plots  or  fields  can  be  secured 
with  a  lane  between  them,  the  conditions  are  so  far  im- 
proved. There  should  be  easy  access  to  a  grass  pasture  and 
also  to  the  sheds,  as  it  is  necessary  to  admit  the  sheep  fre- 
quently to  the  sheds  or  the  pastures  while  they  are  being 
thus  grazed.  In  Figure  I  is  shown  a  panel  of  movable  fence 
and  the  headpiece  for  the  same.  Each  panel  is  composed  of 
three  boards,  4x1  inches  wide  and  a  fourth  one  at  the  bot- 


22  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

torn  1x6  inches  wide.  When  complete  the  panel  is  12  feet 
long  and  3  feet  2  inches  high.  The  end  cross  slats  are  nailed 
on  the  same  side  and  6  inches  from  the  ends  of  the  boards. 
The  spaces  from  below  are  6,  6*4  and  7^4  inches.  The  bot- 
tom board  of  the  headpiece  is  6  x  i%  inches  and  3  feet  6 
inches  long  on  the  ground  side.  The  two  uprights  are  4 
x  i%  inches  and  4  feet  long.  One  is  nailed  on  each  side 
of  the  sole  piece,  and  these  cross  each  other  at  about  6 
inches  from  the  ends.  The  notches  are  3  inches  deep  and 
2  inches  wide.  When  in  place  the  corresponding  slats  of 
the  panels  rest  side  by  side  in  the  notches.  Wire  nails 
are  used  3^2  inches  long.  It  is  frequently  necessary  to 
drive  a  short  stake  beside  the  base  of  the  headpiece,  which 
is  also  nailed  to  it,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  tipping  it 
over. 

A  third  objection  to  grazing  sheep  thus  arises  from 
the  harm  that  follows  such  grazing  when  the  soil  is  wet 
from  rain  or  when  the  crops  well  grown  are  wet  with 
dew.  Harm  comes  to  the  land  if  grazed  soon  after  heavy 
rain ;  such  harm  results  from  impaction.  It  increases  with 
increase  in  the  clay  content  in  the  soil,  with  increase  in 
the  saturation  of  the  land,  and  with  increase  in  the  weight 
of  the  sheep  that  are  being  thus  grazed.  Harm  conies  to 
the  crop,  especially  when  the  growth  has  advanced  some 
distance  above  the  ground,  as  the  sheep  while  grazing  on 
it  when  wet  with  dew  or  rain  break  it  down  much  more 
readily  than  they  would  under  other  conditions  of  graz- 
ing. The  grazing  is  also  soiled  more  or  less  by  earth  ad- 
hering to  it,  and  in  this  way  it  becomes  so  offensive  to 
the  sheep  as  to  be  rejected  by  them.  Harm  to  some  ex- 
tent may  also  come  to  the  sheep  when  wading  through 
tall  pastures,  as  for  instance  those  furnished  by  rape,  corn 
and  sorghum,  when  these  are  saturated  by  rain  or  a 
copious  dew.  Such  a  condition  is  not  natural,  and,  there- 
fore, it  cannot  be  conducive  to  the  well  being  of  the  sheep. 
The  necessity  for  a  grass  pasture  will  be  thus  apparent 
on  which  to  graze  the  sheep  when  the  other  pastures  are 


SHEEP   AS  IMPROVERS   OF   CROP   YIELDS  23 

too  wet  to  admit  of  grazing  them  without  injury.  In  an 
experiment  conducted  at  the  Minnesota  station  the  author 
succeeded  in  grazing  16  sheep,  of  which  10  were  lambs, 
during  nearly  all  the  period  of  grazing  from  spring  until 
the  late  autumn  on  one  acre  of  land,  without  giving  them 
any  additional  food.  The  acre  was  divided  into  four  equal 
parts  and  crops  were  grown  in  succession  on  each  of 
these.  The  sheep  were  moved  from  one  to  the  other  divi- 
sion as  occasion  called  for  such  removal  and  the  crops 
were  grown  in  succession.  As  soon  as  one  crop  was 
grazed  down,  another  was  sown.  The  crops  consisted 
mainly  of  winter  rye,  mixed  grains,  dwarf  Essex  rape, 
sorghum,  small  growing  corn,  and  cabbage.  The  experi- 
ment made  it  very  clear  that  in  humid  areas  a  very  large 
number  of  sheep  could  be  maintained  on  a  relatively  small 
area  of  land,  and  with  much  benefit  to  the  land,  viewed 
from  the  standpoints  of  weed  eradication  and  fertilization. 
Sheep  as  destroyers  of  brush — Sheep  when  properly 
managed  may  render  substantial  aid  in  destroying  brush 
on  lands  from  which  it  is  desired  to  clear  away  the  same. 
Their  value  for  such  uses,  however,  has  probably  been 
overestimated.  For  destroying  brush,  they  are  not  nearly 
the  equal  of  goats.  Nevertheless,  they  may  be  turned  to 
excellent  account  in  destroying  the  sprouts  that  spring 
up  around  the  roots  of  trees  in  pastures  from  which  the 
forest  has  been  recently  cut  away.  They  will  also  clean 
out  such  growths  of  shrub  and  brush  as  are  wont  to 
spring  up  after  the  forest  has  been  cut  away,  as,  for  in- 
stance, sassafras  of  the  South  and  the  raspberry  of  the 
North.  Mowing  down  the  briers  where  sheep  graze  will 
materially  hasten  their  extermination.  Some  breeds  of 
sheep  have  higher  adaptation  for  such  a  use  than  others. 
In  this  respect  the  Merinos  probably  stand  first,  because 
of  the  natural  inheritance  from  ancestors  which  have  been 
accustomed  to  graze  over  wide  areas  on  which  grew  a 
varied  flora,  and  because  it  is  more  admissible  to  keep 


24  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

them  in  large  flocks  where  much  grazing  may  be  required 
than  in  the  case  of  other  breeds. 

Sheep  should  never  be  confined  exclusively  to  brush 
pastures.  The  leaves  of  trees  and  shrubs  are  not  the 
natural  diet  of  sheep,  although  they  may  live  on  the  same 
for  a  considerable  time.  While  goats  will  fatten  on  such 
food,  if  sheep  are  confined  to  brush  pastures  exclusively 
or  even  mainly,  but  one  result  can  follow,  which  is  that 
the  flock  will  become  the  wreck  of  its  former  self.  Great 
loss  has  sometimes  followed  the  attempts  to  keep  sheep 
thus  by  investors  who  did  not  know  that  sheep  would 
not  thrive  on  brush. 

Nevertheless,  under  certain  conditions,  they  may  be 
used  with  much  advantage  in  destroying  brush,  provid- 
ing they  are  suitably  managed  when  thus  used.  They 
should  be  provided  with  a  grass  pasture  on  which  they 
may  graze  during  a  portion  of  each  day.  The  brush  will 
be  more  quickly  destroyed  if  the  sheep  can  be  taken  from 
the  corral  to  the  brush  pasture  in  the  morning  when  they 
are  hungry,  or  if  they  can  be  turned  into  it  the  previous 
evening.  They  will  then  browse  freely  on  the  brush,  but 
in  the  afternoon  they  should  have  the  run  of  a  grass 
pasture  well  stocked  with  grass.  When  the  grass  and 
the  brush  are  in  the  same  pasture,  the  brush  will  eventu- 
ally be  killed,  but  not  in  one  season  where  the  brush  pre- 
ponderates. 

Grain  grazed  by  sheep — In  some  instances  grain 
crops  may  be  grazed  by  sheep  during  the  early  stages  of 
growth  with  benefit  to  the  crop,  in  addition  to  the  graz- 
ing furnished.  In  other  instances  such  grazing,  even  of 
the  same  crops  and  on  the  same  soils,  may  prove  detri- 
mental to  the  yields  obtained  from  them.  In  some  in- 
stances the  increase  from  such  grazing  may  be  more  than 
50  per  cent,  and  in  other  instances  the  decrease  may  be 
equally  large.  The  marked  difference  in  the  results  may 
be  the  outcome  of  a  difference  in  the  character  of  the 
seasons  in  conjunction  with  prudent  or  imprudent  grazing. 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS   OF    CROP   YIELDS  25 

Nearly  all  the  small  cereals  may  be  profited  by  such 
grazing  under  certain  conditions.  The  winter  crops,  as 
winter  rye,  winter  wheat  and  in  the  South  winter  oats, 
will  furnish  such  grazing  for  a  longer  period,  of  course, 
than  any  of  the  cereals  that  are  spring  sown.  Peas  do  not 
stand  such  grazing  as  well  as  other  cereals,  and  the  same 
is  probably  true  of  legumes  generally.  The  production 
of  corn  and  the  sorghums  is  probably  lowered  in  all  in- 
stances by  such  grazing  where  a  mature  crop  is  sought. 
If  corn  is  eaten  down  after  it  has  produced  the  first  joint, 
it  will  not  grow  again. 

It  would  seem  correct  to  say,  on  first  thought,  that 
the  yields  obtained  from  the  small  cereals  will  not  be  in- 
creased by  such  grazing,  except  in  instances  in  which  the 
crop  ungrazed  would  produce  relatively  too  large  a  pro- 
portion of  straw.  But  this  view  must  not  be  pressed  too 
far,  for  there  are  instances  in  which  the  simple  impaction 
of  the  soil  by  the  treading  of  the  sheep  would  seem  to 
have  improved  the  yields  even  where  straw  is  not  pro- 
duced in  excess.  Such  are  certain  soils  of  the  prairie,  so 
light  in  texture  as  to  sink  easily  beneath  the  tread.  The 
impaction  thus  produced  tends  to  lessen  the  escape  of 
moisture  by  surface  evaporation  and  its  benefits  are 
greatest  in  a  dry  season.  Furthermore,  when  the  small 
cereals  are  grazed,  they  stool  more  than  when  not  grazed, 
and  this  means  a  relative  increase  in  nearly  all  instances 
in  the  number  of  heads  produced. 

When  winter  rye,  wheat  or  oats  are  growing  so  rankly 
as  a  result  of  rich  land  and  early  sowing  that,  unchecked, 
they  will  head  out  too  early,  then  it  would  be  in  order  to 
graze  them  down  for  a  time.  But  judgment  must  be 
used  as  to  the  closeness  of  the  grazing,  as  undue  exposure 
of  the  roots  to  the  influences  of  severe  winter  weather 
may  prove  harmful  to  the  crop.  Localities  in  which  the 
winter  weather  is  usually  not  extreme  are  best  adapted  to 
such  grazing.  When  spring-sown  cereals  grow  so  rankly 
in  the  early  stages  of  growth  that  the  danger  is  imminent 


26  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

that  they  will  lodge,  then  great  good  may  result  from 
grazing  them  down  for  a  time  by  sheep.  Early  sown 
crops  will  profit  the  most  from  such  grazing,  as  the  graz- 
ing tends  to  make  the  crops  ripen  somewhat  later,  hence 
the  grazing  down  of  late  crops  may  so  defer  maturity  in 
these  that  they  would  pass  the  season  most  favorable  to 
maturing  under  the  best  conditions  before  maturity  is 
reached.  When  the  area  to  be  grazed  is  large  relatively 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  sheep  on  hand,  the  graz- 
ing may  begin  on  spring-sown  cereals  as  soon  as  the  sheep 
can  obtain  food  from  the  plants,  but  cereals  fall  sown  are 
not  usually  grazed  thus  early,  as  the  season  for  grazing  is 
so  much  longer  than  with  cereals  spring  sown. 

Grazing  cereals  with  sheep  may  harm  the  crops 
rather  than  help  them  under  certain  conditions.  Harm 
will  follow  if  they  are  grazed  on  these  crops  growing  on 
clay  soil  so  moist  that  impaction  will  result  from  the  graz- 
ing. Such  soils  do  not  receive  benefit  from  impaction, 
but  usually  the  opposite.  Such  grazing  is  seldom  prac- 
ticable on  stiff  clays,  and  generally  is  not  needed,  as  on 
such  soils  crops  do  not  usually  grow  too  rankly.  Harm 
will  follow  the  grazing  of  winter  crops  much  beyond  the 
season  when  spring  growth  begins,  although  winter  rye 
may  in  some  instances  be  pastured  with  advantage  to  the 
crop  for  two  or  three  weeks  subsequently  to  the  opening 
of  the  growing  season,  and  harm  will  follow  if  the  graz- 
ing is  continued  so  long  in  any  case  as  to  reduce  the  pro- 
duction of  straw  below  what  is  necessary  to  produce  normal 
yields  of  grain.  Such  an  occurrence  follows  pasturing 
too  long  continued  in  all  instances,  and  it  is  accentu- 
ated when  the  weather  turns  dry.  The  necessity,  there- 
fore, for  exercising  correct  judgment  when  grazing  such 
crops  is  ever  present.  As  the  nature  of  the  weather  can- 
not be  forecasted  with  certainty,  the  prudence  which 
stops  short  of  adequate  pasturing  is  to  be  commended 
rather  than  the  temerity  which  hazards  pasturing  unduly 
severe. 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS   OF    CROP   YIELDS  2J 

Grazing  young  grass  with  sheep — The  stand  of  newly 
sown  grasses  and  clovers  has  in  many  instances  been  im- 
proved by  grazing  them  with  sheep,  whether  these  have 
been  sown  alone  or  with  a  nurse  crop,  but  this  result  does 
not  follow  under  all  conditions  nor  on  all  soils.  When 
sown  alone,  the  benefit  may  come,  first,  from  the  impac- 
tion  of  the  soil,  and,  second,  from  the  removal  of  the 
shade  of  weeds  that  would  otherwise  overshadow  the 
grasses.  When  sown  with  grain  crops,  the  benefit  may 
come,  first,  from  the  impaction  through  treading;  second, 
from  the  removal  of  the  shade  that  would  otherwise  over- 
shadow the  young  grasses,  and,  third,  from  lessening  the 
need  for  moisture  supplies  in  the  grain  crops,  thus  leav- 
ing more  for  the  grasses. 

Newly  sown  grasses  are  thus  improved  in  nearly  all 
instances  when  they  are  sown  along  with  one  or  more 
kinds  of  grain  in  the  spring;  that  is,  on  soils  where  such 
grazing  is  admissible.  On  light  soils  they  are  more  im- 
proved relatively  than  on  heavy  soils,  and  in  a  dry  season 
than  in  one  over  moist.  Such  grazing  of  newly  sown 
grasses  is  not  so  admissible  in  the  autumn,  as  it  would 
tend  to  the  removal  of  the  protection  which  is  so  help- 
ful to  the  plants  in  winter.  On  light,  spongy  soils  diffi- 
culty is  found  in  obtaining  a  stand  of  grasses  sown  along 
with  a  nurse  crop  when  the  season  turns  dry.  The  grasses 
grow  so  delicately,  because  of  the  little  moisture  left  for 
them  by  the  grain  plants,  and  because  of  the  crowding 
of  the  same,  that  in  many  instances  they  perish  outright 
after  the  nurse  crop  has  been  removed  by  harvesting. 

On  the  soft,  spongy  soils  of  the  prairie,  and  espe- 
cially where  moisture  is  not  plentiful,  when  grass  seeds 
are  sown  with  one  or  more  of  the  small  cereals  and  the 
grain  and  grass  are  grazed  down  almost  from  the  first, 
the  stand  of  the  grass  will  be  much  better  than  if  the  crop 
had  not  been  so  grazed.  In  some  seasons  a  stand  of  grass 
will  be  obtained  on  such  soils  if  thus  grazed  when  failure 
would  have  resulted  but  for  the  grazing.  When  grass 


25  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

seeds  are  sown  on  newly  cleared  forest  lands,  the  same 
result  will  follow.  The  sunlight  admitted  by  the  grazing 
tends  to  make  the  young  plants  strong.  A  stand  of  grass 
may  thus  be  obtained  in  many  instances  when  the  seed  is 
sown  along  with  some  crop  grown  especially  to  provide 
grazing  for  sheep.  For  instance,  grasses  may  be  thus 
sown  with  rape,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  and  even  sorghum 
when  the  latter  is  grown  for  grazing. 

Such  grazing,  however,  is  not  admissible  on  lands 
that  usually  impact  too  readily.  Such  are  heavy  clay 
soils.  The  growth  of  the  young  plants  on  these  is  rela- 
tively slow  at  the  best,  and  would  be  slower  if  the  soil, 
already  too  dense,  were  made  more  so  by  the  treading  of 
sheep.  To  graze  such  soils  when  unduly  moist  would  not 
only  greatly  injure  present  but  also  future  production. 

Sheep  and  clover  seed  yields — The  yields  of  clover 
seed  may  frequently  be  much  increased  by  grazing  the 
crop  judiciously  with  sheep.  This  holds  true,  not  only  of 
the  common  red,  but  also  of  the  alsike  and  the  mammoth 
varieties.  The  increase  in  the  yields  of  seed  with  the 
varieties  last  named  arises,  first,  from  the  check  given  to 
over-exuberant  growth  in  clovers ;  and,  second,  from  the 
influence  which  early  grazing  has  on  increased  stooling 
in  plants.  The  first  tends  to  center  development  more 
on  seed  production  than  on  the  production  of  stem  and 
leaves;  and  the  second,  by  increasing  the  number  of  the 
stems  and  the  heads,  increases  the  number  of  the  seeds. 
The  increase  with  the  medium  red  arises  from  the  same 
causes,  and  also  from  the  more  favorable  season  for  abun- 
dant seed  production  at  which  the  crop  may  be  made  to  ma- 
ture. Ordinarily,  seed  is  obtained  from  the  second  growth 
of  the  common  red  variety,  the  first  having  been  taken 
for  hay.  Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  growth  in  some  in- 
stances, and  probably  to  the  partial-  exhaustion  of  the 
powers  of  the  plant  in  others,  the  yields  of  the  seed  are 
reduced.  Reduction  in  yields  is  also  caused  in  some  in- 
stances by  the  clover  midge  (Cecidomyia  leguminicola), 


SHEEP   AS  IMPROVERS   OF    CROP    YIELDS  29 

and  it  may  be  by  other  insects.  By  grazing  with  sheep  the 
maturity  of  the  .seed  crop  may  be  so  hastened  that  the  crop 
will  escape  injury  from  the  midge. 

When  clover  intended  for  seed  is  grazed  by  sheep  the 
grazing  should  begin  soon  after  growth  begins  in  the 
clover.  The  aim  should  be  to  so  stock  the  land  that  the 
grazing  shall  be  reasonably  close  and  also  reasonably  uni- 
form. The  continuance  of  the  grazing  should  be  deter- 
mined by  the  character  of  the  season  and  by  the  variety 
of  the  clover.  In  a  dry  season  it  should  be  short,  in  a  wet 
season  longer,  but  in  no  instance  should  it  continue  many 
weeks  from  the  beginning  of  the  grazing.  The  common 
red  clover  may  be  grazed  longer  than  the  other  varieties. 
Unless  the  grazing  is  uniform  the  red  clover  seed  will 
not  ripen  evenly. 

Such  grazing  should  not  be  attempted  on  clay  soils 
when  they  are  so  wet  that  impaction  would  follow  the 
grazing;  nor  should  it  be  too  long  continued,  lest  the  abil- 
ity of  the  plants  to  produce  sufficiently  strong  stems  and 
plants  for  abundant  production  of  seeds  should  be  too 
much  curtailed.  As  the  nature  of  the  weather  cannot  be 
forecasted  with  certainty,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  when 
such  grazing  should  cease.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  to  graze  too  little  is  wiser  than  to  graze  too 
much. 

Sheep  on  all  farms — Several  reasons  may  be  given 
showing  why  sheep  should  be  kept  on  all  or  nearly  all 
the  farms  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  They  should 
be  so  kept,  first,  because  of  the  service  which  they  can 
render;  second,  because  a  small  flock  may  be  so  main- 
tained at  little  cost;  and  third,  because  the  conditions  un- 
der which  they  may  be  so  kept  are  most  favorable  to  their 
thrift. 

The  service  which  they  may  render  in  destroying 
weeds  has  already  been  discussed.  See  page  13.  So 
marked  is  this  service  that  it  alone  would  furnish  a  justi- 
fication for  keeping  them  in  at  least  limited  numbers. 


3<D  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

Usually  the  farm  which  sustains  a  small  band  of  sheep 
may  at  once  be  distinguished  from  farms  around  it  with- 
out sheep  by  the  greater  cleanliness  which  characterizes 
it.  If  sheep  were  generally  kept  on  farms,  the  disgrace 
of  weed  pollution  which  rests  upon  so  many  of  the  farms 
of  this  country  would  to  a  great  extent  be  taken  away. 
But  in  addition  to  this  service,  they  may  be  made  to  fur- 
nish a  large  proportion  of  the  meat  required  by  the  farmer 
and  his  household.  The  quality  of  the  meat  so  furnished 
cannot  be  surpassed,  since  it  is  grown  on  a  wide  variety 
of  foods  much  of  which  is  possessed  of  ample  succulence,  at 
least  during  the  season  of  grazing.  Should  the  meat  thus 
furnished  be  not  all  wanted  on  the  farm,  the  market  for  it 
locally  is  usually  good. 

The  cost  of  keeping  a  small  flock  on  the  farm  is  small 
indeed.  Much  of  the  food  which  they  consume  during 
the  grazing  season  would  not  be  consumed  but  for  the 
presence  of  the  sheep.  The  food  to  be  charged  against 
them  is  what  they  consume  in  winter,  and  the  season  for 
the  winter  feeding  of  sheep  is  shorter  than  with  other 
animals.  When  the  service  which  they  render  in  destroy- 
ing weeds  and  in  enriching  the  soil  is  considered,  the 
charges  that  may  legitimately  be  made  against  them  are 
small  indeed. 

It  has  been  noticed  that  when  sheep  are  thus  kept  in 
small  flocks,  they  keep  in  a  better  condition  as  to  flesh 
and  thrift  generally  than  if  kept  in  large  bands.  The  per- 
centage of  loss  is  also  much  less.  The  reasons  are  found 
in  the  variety  of  the  food  furnished  in  the  absence  of  over- 
stocking in  the  pasture  and  over-crowding  in  the  sheds, 
and  in  the  lessened  liability  to  disease  which  the  lowering 
of  vitality  brings  with  it  in  the  weaker  animals  in  a  large 
flock.  When  the  benefits  from  keeping  a  small  band  of 
sheep  on  the  farm  are  considered,  it  is,  indeed,  surpris- 
ing that  they  are  found  on  so  few  farms.  The  percentage 
of  the  farms  on  which  they  are  now  kept  is  small,  indeed, 
compared  with  the  same  a  few  decades  ago.  The  reasons 


SHEEP   AS   IMPROVERS  OF   CROP   YIELDS  31 

for  the  change  include  the  following :  First,  the  loss  from 
dogs  has  driven  many  farmers  out  of  the  industry.  With 
increase  in  population  dogs  have  proportionately  in- 
creased, and  the  losses  resulting,  therefore,  have  more 
than  kept  pace  with  increase  in  the  number  of  the  dogs, 
since  vagrant  dogs  in  growing  villages  are  more  numer- 
ous than  when  the  population  was  less  dense,  and  these 
are  often  ill  fed.  Second,  many  farms,  especially  those 
on  western  prairies,  are  not  fenced  and  until  they  are,  in 
part  at  least,  sheep  cannot  be  kept  upon  them.  Third, 
the  transfer  of  the  manufacture  of  wool  from  the  looms  of 
the  farm  to  those  of  the  woolen  mills  has  very  much  less- 
ened the  necessity  for  keeping  the  sheep  on  the  farm. 

The  number  of  sheep  that  may  thus  be  kept  on  the 
farm  with  profit  for  the  uses  specified  will,  of  course, 
vary  with  the  conditions.  It  would  seem  correct  to  say 
that  usually  the  flock  should  not  be  less  than,  say  20 
breeding  ewes  on  each  160  acres.  That  number  should 
keep  weeds  well  in  check  in  by-places,  and  should  furnish 
all  the  mutton,  and  more  probably,  than  would  be  wanted 
on  the  farm.  If  the  number  on  the  average  farm  were 
introduced  into  the  farms  of  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, the  result  would  be  a  virtual  revolutionizing  of  the 
sheep  industry  in  both  countries. 

Sheep  and  fresh  meat  on  the  farm — No  kind  of  live 
stock  kept  on  the  farm  is  so  well  adapted  to  furnish  the 
household  with  fresh  meat  as  sheep,  unless  it  be  poultry. 
This  is  owing  to  the  light  weight  relatively  of  the  carcass. 
Unless,  in  the  warmest  months,  a  lamb  may  be  kept  fresh 
until  consumed,  and  with  an  ice-house  on  the  farm,  it 
may  be  kept  fresh  in  any  weather. 

The  mutton  which  such  sheep  furnish  is  a  delicacy. 
The  variety  of  the  plants  on  which  the  sheep  feed  is  such 
as  to  furnish  excellent  flavor  in  the  meat.  The  succu- 
lence makes  it  tender  and  juicy.  The  abundance  of  the 
grazing  makes  it  well  covered.  No  kind  of  meat  can  be 
furnished  that  is  superior  to  mutton  thus  grown.  It  is  a 


32  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

luxury  in  the  line  of  meat,  and  the  marvel  is  that  so  few 
of  the  farmers  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  en- 
joy it. 

The  influence  on  the  cost  of  living  is  very  material. 
In  the  average  home  where  all  the  food  consumed  is  pur- 
chased, meat  is  the  most  costly  item  of  the  living.  Where 
it  is  not  reared  it  must,  of  course,  be  purchased;  hence 
the  wisdom  of  trying  to  render  such  outlay  unnecessary 
as  far  as  practicable  by  growing  home  supplies  of  meat 
on  the  farm. 


CHAPTER  III 

SHEEP   FOR  WOOL,   FOR   MUTTON   AND    FOR 
BOTH  USES 

This  chapter  discusses  the  following  phases  of  the 
subjects  of  which  it  treats:  (i)  Classification  of  sheep 
based  on  use;  (2)  The  wool  and  mutton-producing 
breeds ;  (3)  The  influences  that  affect  wool  production ; 
(4)  The  influences  that  affect  mutton  production;  (5) 
The  wool  and  mutton  breeds  contrasted;  (6)  Conditions 
more  favorable  to  mutton  production  mainly ;  (7)  Cross- 
ing merinos  on  mutton  breeds  and  their  grades;  (8) 
Crossing  mutton  breeds  on  Merinos  and  their  grades; 
(9)  What  the  aim  should  be  in  wool  production ;  and  (10) 
What  the  aim  should  be  in  mutton  production. 

Classification  based  on  use — The  classification  of 
sheep  based  on  use  divides  them  into  wool-producing  and 
mutton-producing  breeds,  and  also  into  breeds  which  are 
grown  for  the  dual  purpose  of  furnishing  both  wool  and 
mutton.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada  sheep  are 
never  grown  exclusively  for  one  purpose,  though  they  are 
frequently  grown  with  a  view  to  give  prominence  to  wool 
production  in  the  one  instance  and  to  mutton  production 
in  the  other.  In  well-managed  flocks,  the  aim  now  is  to 
produce  a  maximum  yield  of  both  wool  and  mutton  from 
the  breed  or  grade  of  sheep  that  is  being  grown. 

The  time  was  when  sheep  were  grown  in  the  United 
States  much  more  for  the  production  of  wool  than  for  the 
production  of  mutton.  Wool  was  the  primary  object 
sought,  mutton  being  the  secondary  or  incidental  product. 
This  held  down  what  may  be  termed  the  American 
Merino  age  of  sheep  husbandry  in  the  United  States. 
This  period  covered  practically  the  whole  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  although  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 


34 


SHEEP    FOR   WOOL,    MUTTON    AND   BOTH    USES  35 

century  the  current  had  set  in  toward  increased  mutton 
production.  During  the  greater  portion  of  this  century 
it  has  been  claimed,  and  the  claim  would  seem  to  be  cor- 
rect, that  Merinos  and  their  grades  constituted  fully  95 
per  cent  of  all  the  sheep  grown.  On  the  ranges  especially 
were  sheep  grown  mainly  for  wool,  and  to  further  the 
production  thus  obtained  they  were  kept  in  many 
in'stances  to  a  reasonably  advanced  age,  in  striking  con- 
trast to  the  comparatively  early  age  at  which  such  stocks 
are  disposed  of  at  the  present  time.  It  would  seem  cor- 
rect to  say  that  under  no  conditions  are  sheep  kept  in  the 
United  States  only  for  the  production  of  wool.  This, 
however,  has  been  done  doubtless  in  pastoral  countries 
before  the  era  when  the  shipping  of  frozen  mutton  began. 

Whether  wool  or  mutton  shall  be  most  sought  in  the 
growing  of  sheep  under  American  and  Canadian  condi- 
tions will  be  determined  chiefly  by  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  grown.  On  the  arable  farm  mutton  pro- 
duction, as  a  rule,  is  the  dominant  end  for  which  they  are 
grown.  The  greatly  increased  demand  for  mutton  dur- 
ing recent  years  has  stimulated  production  for  this  end. 
The  character  of  the  foods  grown  makes  such  produc- 
tion easily  possible.  Even  on  the  range,  mutton  pro- 
duction has  much  more  significance  than  in  former  years. 
This  change  is  accentuated  by  the  demand  for  sheep  to  be 
fattened,  the  supply  being  now  largely  drawn  from  the 
ranges.  The  increased  demand  for  mutton  sheep  during 
recent  years  has  greatly  increased  the  crossing  of  the 
Merino  types  with  rams  of  the  more  distinctive  mutton 
breeds. 

Wool  and  mutton-producing  breeds — The  Merino 
types  were  formerly  classed  as  wool-producing  sheep, 
because  of  the  extent  to  which  the  production  of  wool 
was  dominant.  These  were  probably  the  only  types  in 
America  that  were  so  characterized.  The  modifications 
in  the  breeding  of  these  during  recent  years,  and  espe- 
cially during  the  past  three  or  four  decades,  has,  in  a 


MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 


sense,  brought  them  into  the  dual  class.    More  especially 
is  this  true  of  the  Rambouillet  and  Delaine  types. 

The  mutton  breeds  include  all  the  middle  and  long 
wool  breeds.  The  former  of  these  in  America  include  the 
Southdown,  Tunis,  Dorset,  Shropshire,  Cheviot,  Suffolk, 
Hampshire  and  Oxford  Down  breeds.  The  mountain 
breeds  are  in  the  dual  class.  Of  these  only  the  West 


FIG.  3— YEARLING  RAMBOUILLETS  GROWN  FOR  WOOL  AND  MUTTON 

Property  of  F.  W.  Cook,  Mansfield,  Ohio. 

(Courtesy  of  owner) 


SHEEP   FOR  WOOL,    MUTTON   AND   BOTH    USES  37 

Highland  and  the  Welsh  Mountain  are  in  this  country, 
and  the  numbers  of  both  are  yet  inconsiderable. 

A  classification  strictly  accurate  will  put  all  the 
breeds  of  sheep  in  America  in  the  dual  class.  Some  of 
these,  as  the  Merino  types,  may  be  properly  classed  as 
wool  and  mutton  producing.  All  the  other  breeds  may 
be  properly  classed  as  mutton  and  wool  producing.  The 
modifications  resulting  from  the  improvement  of  the  mut- 
ton form  on  the  one  hand  and  .wool  production  on  the 
other  have  in  many  instances  been  quite  pronounced 
during  recent  years. 

Influences  that  affect  wool  production — The  chief  of 
the  influences  that  affect  wool  production  are  climate, 
food  and  care,  breeding  and  age.  The  influences  thus  ex- 
erted are  not  equally  potent,  and  these  do  not  always 
influence  wool  in  the  same  way.  These  influences  will 
now  be  considered  briefly. 

It  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  with  decrease  in 
the  mean  temperature  of  climates  wool  increases  in  fine- 
ness, and  vice  versa.  This  view  is  supported  by  the  fact 
that  the  wool  fibers  borne  by  sheep  on  the  plains  of  hot 
climates  are  usually  coarser  and  fewer  in  number  than 
the  same  in  cold  climates.  On  the  other  hand,  the  moun- 
tain breeds  are  usually  clad  in  wool  that  is  more  or  less 
dense  and  fine.  Too  much  must  not  be  made,  however,  of 
these  general  contrasts.  They  may  be  so  influenced  by 
food  and  breeding  that  contrasts  even  the  opposite  may 
be  drawn  from  breeds  kept  under  such  conditions.  The 
fineness  of  the  wool  of  the  Spanish  Merino  for  instance, 
has  been  maintained  in  the  somewhat  austere  climate  of 
New  England  as  fully  as  in  the  balmy  climate  of  South- 
ern Spain.  The  same  is  true  of  this  breed  of  sheep  in  the 
mild  latitudes  of  Australia  or  in  the  stern  climate  of 
Sweden.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  other  influences,  as 
selection,  food  and  breeding,  may  be  made  to  more  than 
counterbalance  this  general  tendency  of  climate.  The 
degree  of  the  moisture  in  climates  also  influences  wool, 


38  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

but  it  probably  does  so  more  through  the  influence  which 
it  exerts  on  food  than  directly.  It  is  true,  nevertheless, 
that  while  moisture  is  generally  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  wool  of  strong  fiber,  this  does  not  follow  where  heavy 
and  excessive  rainfall  is  allowed  to  wash  out  much  of  the 
yolk  from  the  wool.  Such  wool  will  lack  that  softness 
and  elasticity  which  it  would  otherwise  possess. 

That  food  and  care  exercise  a  potent  influence  on 
wool  is  a  foregone  conclusion.  That  it  should  be  so  is 
self-evident,  since  wool  is  produced  and  sustained  by  food 
the  same  as  the  flesh  and  bone  which  it  covers,  and  suit- 
able protection,  therefore,  is  as  necessary  for  the  produc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  the  former  as  of  the  latter.  Food 
influences  wool,  first,  through  the  sustenance  actually 
furnished  to  the  fibers ;  and,  second,  through  the  lubrica- 
tion given  to  them,  Both  influences  will  be  proportionate 
to  the  amount  and  character  of  the  food  given,  but  both 
will  be  modified  by  the  care  bestowed  on  the  flock  and 
the  protection  furnished.  Foods  that  have  the  highest 
adaptation  to  the  requirements  of  digestion  will  also  have 
the  highest  adaptation  for  wool  production.  Foods,  there- 
fore, that  have  high  adaptation  for  the  growth  of  the  car- 
cass have  also  high  adaptation  for  the  growth  of  the  wool 
that  covers  it. 

Speaking  in  a  general  way,  it  would  seem  correct  to 
say  (i)  that  the  coarseness  of  the  wool  increases  with  the 
coarseness  of  the  food  fed;  (2)  that  its  length  up  to  a 
certain  limit  increases  with  the  suitability  of  the  food; 
(3)  that  the  strength  of  its  fiber  is  influenced  by  the  suc- 
culence of  the  food;  and  (4)  that  evenness  of  strength  in 
the  fiber  is  influenced  by  the  degree  of  the  nutrition  fur- 
nished. That  the  general  tendency  in  coarse  foods  is  to 
produce  coarse  wool  is  shown  in  the  evolution  of  breeds 
in  Great  Britain.  The  breeds  which  produce  the  finest 
wool  are  found  on  the  downs  of  the  southern  counties. 
The  breeds  with  coarse  wool  are  found  on  lands  with 
coarser  herbage,  as  those  of  Lincoln  and  Kent.  And  yet 


SHEEP   FOR  WOOL,    MUTTON    AND   BOTH    USES  39 

this  general  tendency  must  not  be  pressed  too  far,  as  the 
fineness  of  the  wool  in  the  Merino  breeds  has  been  main- 
tained alike  on  the  short  herbage  of  the  mountains  of 
Spain  and  the  more  abundant  herbage  of  the  low  lands  of 
Holland.  The  influence  thus  exerted  is  so  slow  as  to  be 
imperceptible,  hence  it  may  be  counteracted  by  other  in- 
fluences, such  as  breeding  and  selection.  The  influence  is 
indirect,  as  directly  food  does  not  increase  the  diameter 
of  the  wool  fiber,  nor  does  it  increase  the  number  of  fibers. 
The  influence  of  suitability  in  food  on  increase  in  the 
length  of  wool  is  shown  in  the  great  increase  in  the  length 
of  staple  in  the  American  Merino  compared  with  its  an- 
cestor, the  Spanish  Merino.  The  limit  of  such  increase 
is  the  limit  of  capacity  in  the  breed.  That  the  strength  of 
the  fiber  is  influenced  by  the  succulence  in  the  food  fol- 
lows from  the  favorable  influence  which  succulence  ex- 
erts on  digestion.  The  more  vigorous  the  digestion,  the 
more  abundant  are  the  materials  from  the  assimilated 
nutrients  fed,  and,  therefore,  the  more  abundant  will  be 
the  nutrient  used  in  wool  production.  The  peculiar  luster 
imparted  to  the  wool  of  Lincoln  sheep  on  their  native 
soils  is  the  outcome  of  the  succulence,  and,  it  may  be,  of 
some  other  characteristics  of  the  grazing.  The  great  ex- 
cellence of  the  wool  of  Merino  sheep  grown  in  parts  of 
Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  is  doubtless  due  in  part  to  the 
succulent  and  nutritious  character  of  the  herbage.  Yet 
this  thought  must  not  be  pushed  too  far,  as  good  wool  is 
furnished  by  the  dry  herbage  of  the  hot  plains  of  Aus- 
tralia. The  influence  of  food  on  the  strength  of  the  fiber 
is  so  marked  that  deprivation  in  the  food  supplies  tends 
at  once  to  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  wool  fiber  and  de- 
tracts from  the  lubrication  which  tends  so  much  to  main- 
tain strength  and  good  condition  in  the  wool. 

That  care  should  influence  growth  in  wool  is  self- 
evident.  Neglect  in  any  form  will  soon  be  evidenced  in 
the  wool.  Lack  of  food  will  weaken  the  fiber.  Lack  of 
succulence  in  the  food  will  lessen  its  luster.  Lack  of 


4O  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

protection  from  rainstorms  will  result  in  loss  of  yolk  in 
the  fleece  of  coarse  wool  sheep,  and  a  massed  and  pasty 
condition  of  yolk  in  that  of  fine  wool  breeds.  Too  much 
protection  will  unsettle  equilibrium  in  the  consistency  of 
the  yolk  through  an  excess  of  heat.  Lack  of  care  will, 
of  course,  neutralize  the  effects  of  good  feeding  in  pro- 
portion as  it  exists. 

Breeding,  accompanied  by  careful  selection,  is  more 
potent  in  bringing  about  modifications  in  wool  produc- 
tion than  any  other  influence.  The  influence  thus  ex- 
erted relates  to  increase  or  decrease  in  the  number  of 
the  wool  fibers,  to  the  length  of  these  and  to  the  size  and 
strength  of  the  fiber.  Breeding  without  selection  and 
selection  without  breeding  will  effect  such  changes,  but 
very  much  more  slowly  than  when  these  act  in  conjunc- 
tion. Even  when  acting  in  conjunction,  the  changes  ef- 
fected are  slow.  A  few  generations  of  judicious  breeding, 
accompanied  by  selection,  will  enable  the  breeder  to 
change  the  form  to  meet  the  requirements  of  modification ; 
but  many  generations  may  be  required  to  effect  the  same 
in  regard  to  wool.  The  exact  method  of  securing  these 
modifications  cannot  be  discussed  here,  they  are  so  many 
and  so  various.  But  attention  should  be  called  to  the 
modifications  in  wool  production  in  the  evolution  of  the 
Rambouillet  and  Delaine  breeds  from  the  American  Me- 
rino, which  are  now  matters  of  history. 

The  trend  of  the  influence  exerted  by  age  and  size 
on  wool  production  is  the  same  in  all  breeds.  The  differ- 
ence is  one  rather  of  degree  than  of  kind.  It  would  seem 
correct  to  say  that,  as  a  rule,  the  heaviest  fleece  shorn 
is  that  first  taken  from  the  sheep,  and  that  decrease  fol- 
lows in  an  increasing  ration  as  age  advances.  The  said 
decrease  is  not  usually  marked  in  the  second  shearing. 
With  Merinos  it  is  claimed  that  in  some  instances  there 
is  no  decrease.  The  decrease  extends  not  only  to  the 
weight  of  the  wool,  but  also  to  the  length  and  the  amount 
of  the  yolk  produced.  In  some  breeds  it  is  seen  in  the 


SHEEP    FOR   WOOL,   MUTTON   AND   BOTH    USES  4! 

loss  of  wool  or  failure  to  produce  wool  on  the  underline. 
The  most  wool  and  the  best  wool  is,  therefore,  produced 
by  young  sheep.  It  is  also  true  that  the  percentage  of 
wool  to  live  weight  decreases  steadily  with  increase  in 
the  size  of  the  sheep.  In  the  best  shearers  the  unwashed 
fleece  of  the  Merino  goes  as  high  as  36  per  cent  of  the 
live  weight.  The  percentage  of  wool  in  the  middle  wool 
breeds  to  the  live  weight  is  considerably  less  and  in  the 
coarse  wool  breeds  there  is  further  decrease.  The  high 
relative  production  of  wool  in  Merinos  is  due  in  part  to 
the  large  amount  of  yolk  in  the  wool.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  weight  of  the  secretions  and  exhalations  from  the 
yolk  glands  exceed  the  evacuations  from  the  bowels  and 
bladder  taken  together. 

Influences  that  affect  mutton  production — The  chief 
influences  that  affect  the  production  of  mutton  are 
climate,  food,  breeding,  care  and  wool.  As  in  the  produc- 
tion of  wool,  these  influences  are  by  no  means  equally 
potent.  Food,  breeding  and  care  exert  a  more  potent  in- 
fluence on  mutton  form  than  climate  or  the  fleece. 

In  the  evolution  of  breeds,  climate  has  exerted  an 
important  influence.  This  influence  is,  of  course,  much 
greater  when  sheep  may  be  maintained  with  little  or  no 
protection.  Climate  affects  both  size  and  constitution  in 
sheep.  It  affects  size  largely  through  the  character  of  the 
food,  which  is  the  outcome  of  climatic  conditions.  This 
explains,  in  part  at  least,  why  the  largest  breeds  of  sheep 
have  been  evolved  in  temperate  climates.  The  oppressive 
heat  of  hot  climates  militates  against  size  and  the  stern- 
ness of  cold  climates  exerts  a  similar  influence.  A  moist 
climate  is  more  favorable  to  increase  in  size  and  also  to 
prolificacy  than  a  dry  one.  The  favorable  influence  on 
prolificacy  is  the  outcome  of  the  succulence  in  the  food. 
The  best  climatic  conditions  for  the  development  of 
sheep  are  those  where  the  temperatures  are  moderate  and 
equable  and  where  the  air  is  moist.  This,  in  part,  ac- 
counts for  the  great  success  attained  in  growing  sheep 


42  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

of  high  quality  in  Great  Britain.  Sheep  reared  under 
austere  conditions  are  more  rugged,  as  a  rule,  than  sheep 
reared  under  conditions  the  opposite.  But  the  influences 
thus  exerted  by  an  invigorating  climate  may,  of  course, 
be  counteracted  by  unwise  protection. 

It  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  no  influence  is  so 
marked  on  mutton  production  as  that  of  food.  Food 
affects  the  development  of  carcass  in  many  ways.  Chiefly 
among  these  are  the  influences  that  it  exerts  on  size,  on 
bone  development  and  on  the  fiber  of  the  flesh.  The  in- 
fluence exerted  by  food  on  size  is  shown  in  the  evolution 
of  the  various  breeds  of  sheep  produced  in  Great  Britain. 
The  small  breeds,  like  the  Southdown,  are  the  product  of 
the  short  and  fine  grasses  of  the  southern  downs.  The 
large  breeds,  like  the  Lincoln,  were  produced  by  luxuri- 
ant and  somewhat  coarse  herbage.  The  influence  of  food 
on  development  is  further  illustrated  in  the  increase  in 
the  average  size  of  the  American  Merino  over  its  ances- 
tor, the  Spanish  Merino.  It  is  also  shown  in  the  rela- 
tively large  size  of  sheep  of  any  breed  that  are  main- 
tained on  a  diet  in  which  alfalfa  is  a  leading  food  factor. 
The  influence  of  food  on  bone  development  is  seen  in  the 
greater  size  and  strength  of  bone  possessed  by  sheep  that 
are  fed  freely  on  foods  that  contain  relatively  a  high  per- 
centage of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  as  compared  with 
the  same  in  sheep  to  which  foods  low  in  these  ingredients 
are  freely  fed.  Where  field  roots  form  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  diet  of  the  animal  during  the  period  of  growth, 
the  development  of  bone  will  be  much  more  than  when 
such  food  as  corn  is  fed  in  the  place  of  roots. 

The  influence  of  food  on  fiber — that  is,  on  the  grain 
of  the  flesh — is  seen  in  the  coarser  fiber  of  the  flesh  of 
the  large  breeds  as  compared  with  those  of  the  small 
breeds.  The  former  have  been  evolved  on  pastures  which 
furnish  herbage  rich  and  relatively  coarse.  The  latter 
have  been  evolved  on  pastures  that  furnish  a  short  and 
relatively  fine  herbage.  When  Southdown  sheep  are 


SHEEP    FOR   WOOL,    MUTTON   AND   BOTH    USES  43 

grazed  for  successive  generations  on  herbage  abundant 
and  coarse,  they  increase  in  size,  but  they  lose  something 
in  the  fineness  of  the  grain  of  the  flesh. 

The  influence  of  breeding  on  mutton  production  is 
very  marked.  The  progeny  of  the  first  cross  of  a  pre- 
potent pure-bred  sire  on  ewes  of  common  or  mixed  breed- 
ing will  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  sire  in  appearance 
and  qualities.  The  progeny  of,  say,  the  fourth  generation 
will  bear  so  close  a  resemblance  to  the  breed  from  which 
the  sires  are  chosen  that,  judged  from  the  standpoint  of 
appearances,  they  would  pass  for  pure  breds.  These  re- 
sults, however,  can  only  be  attained  when  food  is  suffi- 
ciently furnished  and  when  the  care  is  as  it  should  be. 
The  crossing,  or  to  speak  more  accurately,  the  uperad- 
ing,  thus  effected,  should  have  a  regard  to  the  conditions 
which  relate  to  the  furnishing  of  food.  If  the  attempt  is 
made  to  increase  size  through  up-grading  beyond  what 
the  food  ordinarily  furnished  will  maintain,  it  will  end  in 
failure.  The  natural  tendency  toward  increased  size,  the 
outcome  of  breeding,  must  be  adequately  supported  by 
such  food  supplies  as  will  maintain  the  tendency  referred  to. 

The  care  bestowed  qualifies  every  attempt  to  improve 
the  carcass  through  breeding  as  well  as  through  feeding. 
The  effort  to  effect  improvement  through  correct  breeding 
may  be  more  than  neutralized  by  lack  of  proper  care.  On 
the  other  hand,  superior  care  may  go  far  toward  neutraliz- 
ing the  untoward  results  that  follow  mistakes  in  breeding. 
The  care  that  should  be  given  is  dwelt  upon  in  nearly  every 
chapter  of  the  book. 

Wool  is  helpful  to  production  in  so  far  as  it  furnishes 
protection  sufficient  to  keep  the  sheep  in  a  comfortable 
condition.  To  accomplish  this  the  covering  must  be 
enough  to  protect  the  carcass  against  inclement  weather, 
and  it  should  not  be  so  much  as  to  prove  oppressive 
through  the  over-production  of  heat.  Up  to  a  certain 
limit,  therefore,  wool  production  will  be  helpful  to  mut- 
ton production,  notwithstanding  the  drain  on  assimilated 


44  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

food  in  order  to  produce  the  wool.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  adverse  to  mutton  production,  first,  when  it  is  pres- 
ent beyond  the  actual  needs  of  the  sheep  to  insure  a  con- 
dition of  comfort ;  second,  when  the  effort  to  secure  it  of 
a  certain  quality  leads  to  confinement  which  results  in  re- 
duced vigor ;  and  third,  when  maximum  production  of  wool 
is  sought  regardless  of  the  influence  which  it  exerts  on  the 
development  of  carcass.  It  is  present  beyond  the  needs 
of  the  sheep  when  it  becomes  oppressive  on  the  advent  of 
warm  weather.  The  decrease  of  vigor  in  the  Saxon 
Merino,  which  accompanied  the  efforts  to  secure  wool 
superfine  in  quality,  illustrates  the  adverse  influence  re- 
sulting from  too  much  confinement.  The  lack  of  mutton 
form  of  the  highest  type  in  Merinos  illustrates  the  ad- 
verse influence  on  the  carcass  where  maximum  produc- 
tion is  sought  in  wool. 

Likewise  when  maximum  production  is  sought  in  mut- 
ton, the  influence  is  adverse  to  maximum  production  in  wool. 
This  finds  illustration  in  the  far  less  degree  of  the  im- 
provement of  the  wool  product  made  by  Bakewell  in 
Leicester  sheep  as  compared  with  the  improvement  made 
in  the  mutton  form.  While  it  is  impossible  to  achieve 
maximum  production  in  wool  and  mutton  in  the  same  ani- 
mal, it  is,  nevertheless,  quite  possible  to  reach  high  at- 
tainment in  both  respects  in  the  same  animal.  This  is 
amply  illustrated  in  the  transformation  of  the  Spanish 
Merino  into  the  Rambouillet  and  Delaine  types.  It  is 
also  illustrated  in  the  high  productions  of  sheep  of  the 
Shropshire  breed  in  both  wool  and  mutton. 

Wool  and  mutton  breeds  contrasted — The  more  ap- 
parent contrasts  between  the  two  classes  are  such  as  re- 
late to  size,  form,  hardihood  and  prolificacy.  Breeds 
recognized  as  wool  producing  are  of  less  size,  as  a  rule, 
than  those  usually  recognized  as  the  mutton  breeds.  The 
average  weight  of  the  American  and  Saxon  Merino  is  less 
than  that  of  the  mutton  breeds.  The  difference,  how- 
ever, is  growing  less.  This  result  comes  from  the  in- 


SHEEP    FOR    WOOL,    MUTTON    AND    BOTH    USES  45 

creased  attention  given  to  the  improvement  of  mutton, 
form  during  recent  years.  As  a  result  of  this  the  differ- 
ence in  size  between  the  breeds  named  is  not  marked.  It 
is  also  greater  than  that  of  the  mountain  breeds. 

It  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  the  essentials  as 
to  form  for  successful  wool  production  are  essentially  the 
same  as  for  successful  mutton  production.  But  it  is 
quite  possible,  nevertheless,  to  grow  wool  of  the  highest 
class  on  form  that  is  far  from  ideal  for  the  production  of 
mutton.  Owing  to  the  less  favorable  conditions  as  to 
food  and  care  furnished  to  sheep  kept  mainly  for  wool, 
these  have  less  development  in  mutton  form  than  is  found 
in  the  distinctive  mutton  breeds.  This  lack  of  mutton 
form  is  evidenced  in  less  of  rotundity  of  body,  less  of 
chest  width,  and  heart  girth,  and  less  of  length  of  quarter 
with  more  length  of  leg. 

Sheep  kept  mainly  for  wool  production  are  more 
hardy  than  those  kept  primarily  for  mutton  production, 
as  a  rule.  They  can  endure  more  privation  because  of 
low  temperatures  and  short  feed  supplies  than  those  kept 
mainly  for  mutton.  The  mutton-producing  varieties  are 
not  only  less  hardy,  but  they  call  for  a  greater  variety  of 
food  and  more  care. 

While  the  mutton  breeds  differ  in  the  degree  to 
which  they  possess  prolificacy,  as  a  rule,  they  are  more 
prolific  than  breeds  in  which  wool  production  is  domi- 
nant. The  wool-producing  types  seldom  average  more 
than  loo  per  cent  of  lambs.  Some  of  the  mutton  breeds 
average  much  higher. 

Conditions  favorable  to  wool  production — The  con- 
ditions that  favor  wool  rather  than  mutton  production 
are:  (i)  Rugged  lands  of  but  little  agricultural  value; 
(2)  climates  with  vegetation  dry  and  more  or  less  parched 
at  certain  seasons ;  (3)  situations  remote  from  markets ; 
and  (4)  areas  with  but  few  inhabitants. 

On  rugged  lands  sheep  may  be  grown,  but  not  fat- 
tened in  high  form.  On  the  western  ranges  of  the  United 


46  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

States  and  Canada  sheep  may  be  grown  in  fine  form  for 
wool  production,  but  on  these  they  cannot  be  finished. 
To  secure  good  finish  they  must  usually  be  taken  to  other 
areas  where  food  is  more  abundant.  The  same  is  true 
even  in  a  more  marked  degree  of  sheep  grown  on  the 
ranges  of  Australia. 

Sheep  will  maintain  themselves  on  vegetation  dry 
and  parched  at  certain  seasons  providing  the  grazing  is 
sufficient  for  their  needs.  The  grasses  in  such  areas  usu- 
ally cure  while  retaining  their  hold  on  the  soil.  They 
will  produce  wool,  though  not  of  the  highest  type,  in  bet- 
ter form  relatively  than  they  will  produce  mutton.  To 
furnish  mutton  of  the  highest  class  the  element  of  suc- 
culence must  be  abundantly  present.  When  the  range 
lands  are  remote  from  markets,  wool  may  be  transported 
much  more  cheaply  than  mutton  in  proportion  to  the  rela- 
tive value  of  the  two  products.  The  value  of  a  pound  of 
wool  is  usually  several  times  the  value  of  a  pound  of 
mutton  on  foot ;  hence  the  cost  of  marketing  wool  is  pro- 
portionately less.  This  furnishes  one  explanation  as  to 
why  wethers  on  the  arable  farm  are  more  commonly  mar- 
keted in  the  lamb  form,  whereas  on  the  ranges  several 
clips  of  wool  are  taken  before  they  are  sold.  The  former 
grow  mutton  most  cheaply  while  less  than  one  year  old, 
and  are  usually  marketed  cheaply,  whereas  the  marketing 
of  the  latter  is  relatively  costly. 

Where  a  country  is  but  sparsely  settled  the  demand 
for  mutton  is  correspondingly  light.  The  more  densely 
peopled  the  country  is,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
greater  relatively  is  the  demand  for  mutton.  The  more 
intense  the  range  conditions,  therefore,  the  more  the 
profit  relatively  that  comes  from  giving  attention  to  the 
production  of  wool  rather  than  to  the  production  of  mut- 
ton. 

Conditions  favorable  to  mutton  production — The 
conditions  favorable  to  mutton  production  mainly  are : 
(i)  Lands  valuable  and  productive;  (2)  climates  favor- 


SHEEP    FOR   WOOL,   MUTTON    AND   BOTH    USES  47 

able  to  abundant  growth;  and  (3)  locations  not  distant 
from  populous  centers.  These  conditions  are,  in  a  sense, 
the  opposite  of  those  that  favor  wool  production  as  the 
leading  object  for  which  sheep  are  grown. 

The  return  from  wool  only,  or  chiefly,  would  not  be 
sufficient  from  high-priced  lands  to  justify  the  introduc- 
tion of  sheep  husbandry  on  such  lands.  The  profit  from 
the  sheep  under  such  conditions  comes  more  from  the 
mutton  than  from  the  wool,  and  it  comes  rather  from  the 
sale  of  lambs  than  from  the  sale  of  mutton  in  a  more  ma- 
ture form.  The  higher  the  productive  power  of  such 
lands,  the  larger  is  the  amount  of  mutton  that  can  be 
produced  from  them,  and  the  net  returns  will  be  propor- 
tionate. A  part  of  the  return  will  also  come  from  the  in- 
creased production  resulting  from  such  a  system  of  hus- 
bandry. When  mutton  is  grown  on  such  lands,  the  high- 
est profits  may  usually  be  obtained  from  winter  lambs 
(see  page  255),  owing  to  the  high  price  for  which  they 
may  be  sold. 

Of  course,  mutton  of  the  highest  class  cannot  be  pro- 
duced save  in  localities  where  food  is  plentiful  and  suc- 
culent. To  produce  such  conditions  it  is  essential  that 
the  climate,  as  well  as  the  soil,  shall  be  favorable  to 
abundant  production.  Abundant  production  and  succu- 
ence  in  the  growth  usually  go  together.  The  pre-emi- 
nence of  Great  Britain  in  producing  mutton  sheep  is 
owing  in  no  inconsiderable  degree  to  the  moist  character 
of  its  insular  climate.  The  same  is  true,  though  in  a  less 
degree,  of  that  portion  of  Ontario  that  lies  between  the 
Great  Lakes.  The  dry  ranges  of  the  western  states  have 
a  soil  possessed  of  great  natural  fertility,  and  yet  the  pro- 
duction is  not  abundant  nor  succulent  because  of  lack  of 
moisture. 

The  importance  of  proximity  to  populous  centers  on 
the  part  of  those  who  grow  mutton  arises  from  the  de- 
mand for  such  food  in  the  aggregate,  from  the  high  prices 
that  are  paid  for  the  superior  grades  and  from  the  rela.- 


48  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

tively  low  cost  of  marketing  the  same.  The  great  and 
constant  demand  lessens  the  possibility  of  great  fluctua- 
tions in  price  such  as  results  from  a  glutted  market.  The 
discriminations  in  such  markets  are  such  as  to  encourage 
the  production  of  superior  grades,  a  result  that  seldom 
follows  in  a  market  of  subordinate  importance.  The  low 
cost  of  marketing  when  the  markets  are  near  is  just  so 
far  to  the  advantage  of  the  grower.  It  also  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  him  to  fill  orders  on  short  notice  and  in  a  way 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  purchaser. 

Crossing  Merinos  on  the  mutton  breeds — It  cannot 
be  said  that  the  crossing  of  Merinos  on  any  of  the  mutton 
breeds  or  the  grades  of  these  has  been  helpful  to  improve- 
ment in  mutton  production.  It  does,  however,  add  to  the 
fineness  of  the  wool  and  to  the  weight  of  the  fleece.  The 
increase  in  weight  is  due,  first,  to  increase  in  density,  and, 
second,  to  increase  in  the  amount  of  yolk  produced.  The 
improvement  thus  effected  in  what  is  sometimes  termed 
native  sheep — that  is,  sheep  produced  by  generations  of 
aimless  breeding — is  very  marked,  and  it  may  also  extend 
in  some  instances  to  the  form  and  mutton-producing 
qualities.  Where  wool  production  is  the  dominant  object 
for  which  sheep  are  kept,  such  crossing  or  up-grading, 
as  it  may  properly  be  termed,  is  not  only  legitimate,  but 
is  highy  commendable.  During  the  nineteenth  century, 
except  in  the  last  quarter,  such  crossing  was  much  prac- 
ticed. In  wool-growing  countries,  such  as  Australia,  it 
is  very  generally  practiced. 

The  crossing  of  Merino  types  on  the  mutton-produc- 
ing breeds  and  the  grades  of  these  has  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances resulted  in  decrease  in  size,  weight,  early  matur- 
ing properties,  desirable  mutton  form,  propensity  to  fatten, 
and  prolificacy.  The  decrease  in  size  does  not  follow  in 
all  classes  of  sheep.  In  some  instances  both  size  and  form 
are  improved  by  the  use  of  Merino  sires,  especially  of  the 
Delaine  and  Rambouillet  types.  Such  improvement  is 
the  normal  result  when  the  types  crossed  upon  are  of 


SHEEP    FOR    WOOL,    MUTTON    AND    BOTH    USES  49 

low  grade.  More  commonly,  however,  the  mutton  types 
and  grades  of  these  are  of  superior  size  and  weight  to 
the  Merino ;  hence  the  result,  as  a  rule,  is  decrease  in  size 
and  weight. 

As  a  rule  the  mutton  types  and  their  grades  mature 
more  quickly  than  Merinos.  The  difference  is  in  some  in- 
stances material.  Southdown  sheep  will  reach  maturity 
in,  say,  two  years,  as  pronounced  as  the  maturity  reached 
by  Merinos  in  three  years.  The  slower  growth  thus  re- 
sulting adds  to  the  cost  of  production,  and  is  so  far  ad- 
verse to  the  growing  of  milk  lambs,  or  even  lambs  that 
are  to  be  marketed  at  a  more  advanced  age. 

That  the  improved  mutton  breeds  and  their  grades 
have  a  more  desirable  mutton  form  than  the  average  of 
the  Merino  types  cannot  be  gainsaid.  Because  of  this 
they  are  designated  the  mutton  breeds.  The  usual  result, 
therefore,  from  crossing  the  Merino  types  on  these  is 
mutton  form  that  is  somewhat  less  desirable.  Neverthe- 
less, there  are  some  types  of  sheep  that  may  be  improved 
in  form  by  the  Merino  cross.  The  influence  of  the  Merino 
cross  on  the  propensity  to  fatten  is  similar.  Animals  that 
mature  slowly  also  fatten  more  slowly  than  quick-matur* 
ing  animals ;  hence  the  transmission  that  imparts  slow 
maturity  will  also  impart  proportionately  the  tendency 
to  fatten  slowly.  But  this  fact  must  not  be  pressed  too 
far,  since  the  Merinos  in  America  have  been  greatly  im- 
proved in  their  maturing  and  also  in  their  flesh-producing 
properties. 

The  adverse  influence  of  the  Merino  cross  upon  pro- 
lificacy is  probably  more  marked  than  the  adverse  in- 
fluence in  the  other  respects  mentioned.  The  original 
Spanish  Merino  was  a  shy  breeder.  This,  to  some  extent, 
has  been  corrected  by  the  superior  environment  and 
better  food  given  to  them  in  the  United  States.  But  even 
now  they  are  less  prolific  than  many  of  the  mutton 
breeds,  and  in  crossing  this  characteristic  is  measurably 
transmitted. 


50  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

Crossing  Merinos  on  other  breeds  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances improves  their  hardihood.  The  Merino  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  hardy  of  the  improved  breeds  in 
America.  This  superior  hardihood  is  partly  the  outcome 
of  inheritance,  partly  the  result  of  the  impervious  or  re- 
sistant character  of  the  fleece  to  storms,  and  partly  the 
outcome  of  exposure,  which  their  superior  hardihood  en- 
ables them  to  resist.  This  characteristic  explains,  in  a 
measure  at  least,  the  great  popularity  of  the  Merino  blood 
on  the  western  ranges.  It  has  been  found  that  sheep  pos- 
sessed of  a  considerable  measure  of  Merino  blood  will  en- 
dure exposure  better  than  other  breeds ;  that  their  graz- 
ing properties  over  wide  areas  are  superior;  and  that  they 
can  be  grazed  more  successfully  than  other  sheep  in  large 
bands.  The  large  size  of  the  Rambouillet  and  the  im- 
proved mutton  form  of  the  Delaines  make  it  practicable 
in  many  instances  to  maintain  size  in  the  types  crossed 
upon,  and  also  fair  mutton  qualities,  in  addition  to  the 
improvement  in  the  fleece  which  results  from  these 
crosses. 

Crossing  mutton  breeds  on  Merinos — The  American 
Merino,  and  especially  grades  of  the  same,  furnishes  ex- 
cellent material  for  being  crossed  upon  by  the  mutton 
breeds.  In  the  pure  form  the  Merino  is  strongly  resistant 
to  change.  This  is  the  outcome  from  centuries  of  breed- 
ing without  admixture  of  blood  from  any  outside  source. 
The  characteristics  of  the  Merinos  thus  crossed  will  be 
dominant  in  a  greater  degree  in  the  progeny  than  the 
characteristics  of  the  breed  used  in  crossing.  But  grades, 
though  strongly  possessed  of  Merino  blood,  are  much 
more  plastic.  The  superior  ruggedness  which  they 
possess  transmits  to  the  progeny  that  vigor  which  enables 
them  to  bear  up  under  forced  feeding. 

The  crossing  of  Merino  grades  by  sires  of  the  mut- 
ton breeds  results  in  increase  in  size  and  weight,  and  in 
improvement  in  the  mutton  form,  and  in  the  propensity 
to  fatten  readily.  It  also  tends  to  remove  wrinkles.  The 


SHEEP    FOR   WOOL,   MUTTON   AND   BOTH    USES  51 

increase  in  size  and  weight  is  influenced  by  the  breed 
from  which  the  sire  is  chosen.  Usually  the  greater  the 
average  weight  and  size  in  the  breed  which  has  furnished 
l.he  sires,  the  greater  will  be  the  increase  in  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  resultant  progeny.  Such  increase  in  even 
the  first  cross  may  carry  the  progeny  beyond  the  weight 
at  the  usual  age  for  marketing  that  is  most  in  favor  in  the 
markets  of  to-day.  The  crosses  most  in  favor  at  the  pres- 
ent time  are  those  made  with  sires  of  the  middle  wool 
breeds.  Among  these,  those  of  the  dark-faced  or  Down 
types  are  highest  in  favor,  and  of  these  the  smaller  breeds, 
as  the  Southdown  and  Shropshire,  are  the  most  used.  The 
improvement  in  form  is  shown  in  the  widening  and  firm- 
ing of  the  back,  increasing  correspondingly  the  rotundity 
of  the  body  and  increasing  the  development  of  chest  and 
thigh.  The  tendency  to  take  on  flesh  is  so  improved  that 
an  excellent  finish  is  easily  practicable  with  sheep  and 
lambs  of  the  first  cross  made,  as  above  outlined.  One 
cross  from  the  mutton  breeds  on  grade  Merinos  will 
greatly  reduce  the  formation  of  wrinkles,  so  objectionable 
in  mutton  sheep,  and  in  many  instances  it  will  entirely  ob- 
literate them.  It  is  peculiarly  fortunate  that  the  results 
from  these  crosses  are  so  favorable.  The  western  ranges 
are  virtually  stocked  with  Merino  grade  sheep.  Range 
conditions  are  unfavorable  to  finishing  these,  with  some 
exceptions.  When  too  advanced  in  age  for  further  use  on 
the  range,  the  ewes  may  be  shipped  to  the  stockyards, 
taken  from  thence  to  the  farms,  made  to  produce  one 
crop  of  lambs  and  then  finished  in  good  form  on  such 
pasture  as  rape.  In  this  way  a  farmer  may  easily  pro- 
vide for  himself  lambs  for  feeding  in  the  late  autumn  and 
winter. 

A  cross  from  any  of  the  mutton  breeds  will  tend  to 
reduce  the  wool  of  high  grade  Merinos  in  fineness,  in 
density  and  in  the  quantity  of  yolk  that  it  contains,  and 
from  all,  or  nearly  all  of  them,  the  tendency  will  be  to 
increase  the  length  of  the  fiber  and  to  decrease  the  weight 


52  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

of  the  fleece.  The  reduction  in  fineness  and  density  will 
be  relatively  slow,  and  it  will  be  measurably  proportion- 
ate to  the  character  of  the  fleece  possessed  by  the  breed 
used  in  crossing.  The  reduction  in  the  yolk  results  from 
the  law  of  transmission  operating  through  the  crossing  of 
a  breed  with  less  yolk  in  the  wool  upon  one  possessed  of 
more.  The  increase  in  the  length  of  the  fiber  will  depend 
upon  relative  length  of  the  same  in  the  breed  used  in 
crossing  and  in  the  grade  crossed  upon.  A  cross  from 
any  of  the  long  wool  breeds  will  lengthen  the  fiber  in  all 
instances.  A  similar  result  will  follow,  though  less  in 
degree,  from  some  crosses  made  by  certain  of  the  middle 
wool  breeds,  as  the  Oxford  Down  and  Cheviot.  A  cross 
of  the  Southdown  will  usually  result  in  shortening  the 
wool  fiber.  The  Lincoln  cross  upon  Merino  grades  stands 
high  in  favor,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  wool  pro- 
duction. Sheep  the  progeny  of  such  crosses  are  heavy 
shearers.  The  wool  is  strong  in  fiber  and  prized  by  man- 
ufacturers. The  Shropshire  cross  is  also  a  favorite,  viewed 
from  the  standpoint  of  quality  and  yield  in  the  wool. 

Crossing  the  mutton  breeds  upon  those  essentially  of 
Merino  lineage  tends  in  some  degree  to  lessen  hardihood 
in  the  progeny,  and  it  may  also  be  said  to  detract  from 
their  ability  to  rustle  for  food.  The  less  dense  character 
of  the  fleece  resulting  makes  them  less  resistant  to  storms. 
The  decrease  in  the  yolk  still  further  lessens  such  power. 
They  are  also  less  inclined,  and  are  indeed  less  able,  to 
roam  over  large  areas  when  seeking  food.  On  the  arable 
farm  these  considerations  are  not  of  moment  nearly  so 
great  as  on  the  range.  In  but  few  instances,  and  possibly 
not  in  any,  has  it  been  found  possible  on  the  western 
ranges  to  maintain  sufficient  stamina  in  sheep,  the  prog- 
eny of  any  considerable  number  of  crosses  made  suc- 
cessively from  using  sires  of  any  of  the  mutton  breeds. 
After  crossing  thus  for  a  time  it  has  been  found  necessary 
to  introduce  one  or  more  outcrosses  of  Merino  blood  to  in- 
crease inherent  vigor  and  especially  storm-resistant  power. 


SHEEP   FOR   WOOL,   MUTTON    AND   BOTH    USES  53 

The  aim  in  wool  production — The  aim  should  be: 
(i)  In  wool  production  to  secure  wool  of  a  desired  grade 
in  the  largest  quantity  attainable;  (2)  to  secure  its  even 
distribution  over  the  body;  and  (3)  to  secure  even  and 
highest  quality  in  the  wool.  These  should  be  in  wool 
whatever  the  breed  or  grade. 

The  grade  of  wool  that  should  be  sought  should  be 
determined  chiefly  by  the  demand  that  exists  for  that 
class  of  wool  and  the  capacity  of  the  sheep  to  produce  it. 
Each  of  the  pure  breeds  produces  wool  of  a  certain  kind 
that  is  characteristic  of  the  breed.  It  would  not  be  wise 
to  seek  to  transform  the  character  of  that  wool  into 
something  essentially  different.  Much  time  would  be 
called  for  to  make  such  change  as  would  have  to  be  made 
through  selection.  But  when  the  sheep  are  not  purely 
bred,  then  it  may  be  essentially  proper  to  seek  such  mod- 
ification, even  though  sires  from  another  breed  should  be 
used  in  making  it.  For  instance,  when  fine  wool  was  very 
dear  as  compared  with  coarse  wool,  the  use  of  Merino 
sires  was  not  only  legitimate  but  commendable,  and  when 
the  price  so  changed  that  medium  and  coarse  wools  sold 
virtually  as  high  as  fine  wools,  the  use  of  sires  from  the 
breeds  that  produced  such  wool  was  justifiable,  and  all 
the  more  so  when  mutton  quality  in  the  sheep  became 
relatively  more  important. 

Each  pure  breed  of  sheep  has  a  certain  standard  of 
wool  characteristic  of  the  breed.  This  standard  is  not 
always  adhered  to  by  the  breeders.  For  instance,  Shrop- 
shire sheep  come  into  the  show  ring  possessed  of  wool 
more  or  less  open  and  possessed  of  characteristics  per- 
taining to  the  Oxford  Down  fleece.  Such  wool  is  usually 
long,  and  when  present  makes  the  animal  appear  larger. 
The  judge  in  the  show  ring  should  discourage  the  pro- 
duction of  wool  in  any  breed  at  variance  with  the  stand- 
ard for  the  breed. 

The  demand  for  wool  of  a  certain  grade  varies  with 
change  in  the  fashions.  Such  variation  may  cover  a 


54  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

period  of  years ;  hence  to  profit  by  such  change  it  may  be 
necessary  to  change  the  breed  from  which  sires  are 
chosen.  Such  change,  however,  should  be  modified  by 
the  effect  that  it  will  have  on  mutton  production  when 
that  is  an  important  consideration.  Such  change  when 
sought  should  come  through  the  process  of  upgrading 
rather  than  that  of  promiscuous  crossing.  That  is,  it 
should  come  by  choosing  the  successive  sires  from  one 
breed.  Having  decided  upon  the  grade  of  wool  sought, 
every  reasonable  effort  should  be  made  to  secure  it  in  the 
largest  quantity  attainable. 

The  even  distribution  of  wool  over  the  body  varies 
somewhat  in  breeds,  and  it  varies  much  in  individuals  of 
the  breed.  Such  distribution  is  secured  in  a  high  degree 
in  the  various  Merino  types,  in  Shropshires  among  middle 
wool  breeds,  and  in  Lincolns  among  long  wool  breeds. 
Formerly  Southdowns  and  Leicesters  were  occasionally 
bare  in  the  underline,  especially  as  the  age  advanced,  but 
this  defect  in  wool  covering  is  being  largely  corrected  in 
breeding. 

The  degree  of  the  wool  covering  on  the  head  and  legs 
is  determined,  first,  by  the  breed,  and  second  by  the  relative 
importance  attached  to  such  covering.  Viewed  as  an  indica- 
tion of  correct  breeding  it  is  important,  but  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  fancy,  it  has  but  little  significance.  When 
it  is  carried  to  the  extent  of  making  a  fancy  point  of 
greater  moment  than  a  point  of  much  practical  impor- 
tance, then  it  becomes  decidedly  adverse  to  production 
of  the  highest  type. 

Absolute  evenness  in  the  quality  of  the  wool  that 
covers  the  sheep  is  unattainable.  It  is  unattainable  in 
relation  to  length,  to  density  and  to  the  size  of  the  fiber. 
The  wool  on  the  underline  and  certain  other  parts  of  the 
frame  is  never  so  long  as  on  the  sides  and  back.  The 
density  of  the  wool  is  always  greater,  for  instance,  on  the 
back  than  on  certain  parts  of  the  underline.  The  size  of 
the  fiber  is  also  usually  greater  on  the  outer  thighs  than 


SHEEP   FOR   WOOL,   MUTTON   AND   BOTH    USES  55 

on  the  shoulders  or  side.  But  the  difference  in  these 
respects  is  more  marked  in  certain  of  the  breeds,  and  in 
all  or  nearly  all  of  them  it  is'capable  of  still  further  reduc- 
tion. While  uniformity  in  all  these  respects  is  important, 
uniformity  in  length  is  of  especial  importance.  It  is 
found  more  complete  in  the  fine  wool  than  in  the  coarse 
wool  types. 

Usually  the  first  quality  of  wool  is  obtained  along 
the  sides  of  the  sheep  from  the  hip  to  the  shoulder  and 
including  a  part  of  both.  The  second  quality  is  found  on 
the  back  from  the  poll  to  the  rumps,  much  the  poorest 
grade  in  this  class  being  on  the  rumps.  The  third  quality 
is  found  on  the  throat,  forearm,  belly,  thighs,  legs  and 
head.  These  divisions  are  very  general,  the  wool  in  each 
of  them  being  graded  by  further  subdivision.  (See  page 
70.) 

To  secure  highest  quality  in  wool  calls  into  exercise 
a  high  degree  of  skill  in  breeding.  With  such  an  end  in 
view,  it  involves  continued  selection  of  the  most  careful 
kind,  and  it  necessitates  furnishing  food  and  protection 
adapted  to  the  end  sought.  Improvement  in  wool  pro- 
duction is  much  more  difficult  of  attainment  and  calls  for 
a  much  longer  time  to  effect  it  than  improvement  in  mut- 
ton production. 

The  aim  in  mutton  production — The  chief  aim  in 
mutton  production  should  be:  (i)  To  secure  the  most 
flesh  compatible  with  normal  size;  (2)  the  highest  de- 
velopment in  the  best  parts;  (3)  highest  quality  in  the 
mutton  production ;  and  (4)  to  meet  the  demands  which 
the  markets  call  for.  To  accomplish  these  ends  in  a 
marked  degree  is  not  incompatible  with  securing  wool 
also  abundant  in  quantity  and  of  high  quality. 

Each  breed  or  grade  has  its  own  standard  of  size. 
This  standard  is  not  inflexible.  It  is  modified  by  food 
conditions.  Thus  the  standard  of  size  for  sheep  that  are 
grown  chiefly  on  alfalfa  is  higher  than  the  standard  for 
the  same  on  the  downs  of  southern  England.  In  other 


56  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

words,  the  sheep  grown  on  the  former  will  naturally 
grow  to  a  larger  size  than  sheep  grown  on  the  latter.  But 
size  without  aptitude  to  fatten  is  not  only  not  helpful,  but 
it  may  be  harmful ;  hence  the  aim  should  be,  when  look- 
ing for  mutton,  to  breed  sheep  that  may  be  made  to  carry 
a  large  proportion  of  mutton  relatively  to  the  size  of  the 
carcass.  Size  more  than  normal  in  the  flock  is  frequently, 
though  not  always,  associated  with  roughness  and  a  lack 
of  highest  fleshing  capacity. 

High  development  in  the  best  parts  is  greatly  impor- 
tant in  the  sheep  grown  for  mutton.  What  is  termed  the 
saddle,  the  loin  and  the  leg  of  mutton  include  the  most 
valuable  cuts.  The  leg  of  mutton — that  is,  the  lower  part 
of  the  hind  quarter — is  much  prized;  hence  the  impor- 
tance of  seeking  much  development  in  the  same.  Good 
development  in  the  entire  back  is  greatly  important,  but 
it  is  especially  so  on  the  loin,  because  of  the  value  of  the 
cuts  produced  there.  High  quality  in  the  mutton  pro- 
duced is  the  outcome  of  breeding,  of  the  foods  fed,  and  of 
the  blending  of  these  foods.  That  some  breeds  have 
higher  adaptation  than  others,  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  quantity  and  quality,  cannot  be  gainsaid.  Some 
breeds  have  better  development  of  the  valuable  parts  of 
the  carcass  than  others,  and  some  produce  meat  of  more 
perfect  blending  than  others.  When  seeking  improve- 
ment in  mutton  qualities  through  grading,  therefore,  it  is 
a  question  of  much  practical  moment  as  to  which  breed 
the  sires  shall  be  chosen  from.  Nevertheless,  the  individ- 
uality of  the  animals  in  the  breed  is  more  important  rela- 
tively than  the  breed. 

The  influence  of  food  on  the  quality  of  the  mutton 
is  very  marked.  From  grasses  that  are  lacking  in  succu- 
ence  the  same  high  quality  of  mutton  cannot  be  produced 
as  from  grasses  equal  in  nutriment  and  possessed  of  am- 
ple succulence.  Nor  can  mutton  of  the  same  fine  texture 
be  made  from  coarse  herbage  as  from  that  which  is  fine. 
Neither  can  so  high  a  grade  of  mutton  be  made,  as  a  rule, 


SHEEP   FOR   WOOL,   MUTTON   AND  BOTH   USES  57 

on  pasture  or  dry  fodders  only  as  on  these  foods,  sup- 
plemented by  grain.  The  exceptions  include  such  graz- 
ing as  is  furnished  by  rape  and  field  roots. 

The  proper  blending  of  the  foods  has  a  marked  in- 
fluence on  the  quality  of  the  mutton.  Dry  fodders  and 
grain  only  will  furnish  mutton  of  high  quality  viewed 
from  the  standpoint  of  high  finish  in  the  carcass,  but 
these  will  not  furnish  meat  so  juicy  as  when  some  succu- 
lent food  is  fed.  To  make  proper  provision  for  such 
succulent  food  may  necessitate  much  forethought  and 
may  call  for  no  little  effort  to  secure  them,  and  the  de- 
termination of  the  quantities  to  be  fed  may  call  for  the 
exercise  of  experience  and  skill,  but  the  fact  remains  that 
no  flockmaster  is  so  well  equipped  for  wintering  a  flock 
or  for  finishing  the  same  as  the  one  who  has  on  hand  an 
ample  store  of  succulent  food. 

In  growing  mutton  the  demands  of  the  market  can- 
not be  ignored.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  grower  of  mut- 
ton shall  produce  a  good  article.  To  bring  the  best  price 
it  must  meet  the  conditions  of  the  market  demands.  It 
must  at  least  approximate  the  demands  of  the  market  in 
the  size  and  weight  of  carcass  and  in  the  finish  of  the 
same.  This  finds  easy  illustration  in  the  growing  and 
marketing  of  milk  lambs.  The  largest  price  is  paid  for 
the  lambs  which  are  possessed  of  a  certain  weight  or 
which  approximate  the  same  and  which  have  high  finish. 
Lambs  of  equal  weight  but  of  less  finish  will  be  propor- 
tionately discounted,  and  the  same  is  true  of  lambs  of 
higher  weight  though  possessed  of  equal  finish.  Sim- 
ilar illustrations  could  be  furnished  from  the  other 
classes  of  sheep. 


CHAPTER  IV 
WOOL  DESCRIBED  AND  CLASSIFIED 

Chapter  IV  treats  of  the  following  phases  of  this 
question:  (i)  What  is  meant  by  wool;  (2)  the  discussion 
of  fiber  in  wool ;  (3)  the  discussion  of  yolk  in  wool ;  (4) 
how  wools  are  classified;  (5)  short,  intermediate  and  long 
wools ;  (6)  superfine,  fine,  intermediate  and  coarse  wools ; 
(7)  carding  and  combing  wools ;  and  (8)  wool  as  distrib- 
uted over  the  body. 

What  is  meant  by  wool — Strictly  speaking,  as  the 
term  is  ordinarily  used,  wool  is  the  covering  or  fleece  of 
the  sheep.  But  the  use  of  the  term  has  been  extended  so 
as  to  include:  (i)  The  heavy  fleece  of  the  alpaca,  vicuna, 
and  other  species  of  the  llama ;  (2)  the  hair  of  the  Angora, 
Cashmere  and  other  breeds  of  the  goat ;  (3)  several  kinds 
of  fur  from  certain  fur-bearing  animals ;  and  (4)  the  soft 
down  from  the  underline  of  the  camel.  In  one  sense, 
therefore,  it  is  simply  hair  of  a  soft,  pliable  and  elastic 
character,  more  or  less  spiral  and  wavy  in  form.  The  de- 
gree in  which  these  characteristics  are  present  varies 
greatly  in  the  different  breeds.  It  would  seem  correct 
to  say  that  softness,  pliability  and  elasticity  are  possessed 
in  the  highest  degree  by  the  fine  wool  breeds,  in  a  less 
degree  by  the  middle  wool  breeds  and  in  a  still  less  de- 
gree by  the  coarse  wool  breeds.  The  spiral  form  of  fiber 
occurs  to  the  greatest  extent  in  some  of  the  coarse  wool 
breeds  and  the  wavy  or  crimpy  form  in  the  fine  wool 
breeds.  Many  breeds  of  sheep,  especially  those  that  are 
neglected,  are  covered  with  hair  underneath,  which  may 
properly  be  classed  as  wool.  The  absence  of  hair  in  the 
improved  breeds  is  chiefly  owing  to  improvements  ef- 
fected through  selection  and  breeding.  No  sooner  are 
sheep  neglected,  exposed  and  subjected  to  hard  condi- 

n 


WOOL    DESCRIBED   AND    CLASSIFIED  59 

tions,  than  a  tendency  to  reversion  sets  in.  The  fiber  be- 
comes shorter,  straighter  and  coarser,  until  in  some  in- 
stances it  closely  resembles  hair. 

Wool  may  be  distinguished  from  hair,  and  in  fact 
from  all  vegetable  fibers,  by  the  corrugated  character  of 
the  fibers  and  by  its  property  of  felting.  The  latter  is  the 
outcome  of  the  epithelial  scales  which  overlap  each  other 
along  the  course  of  the  fibers.  Other  distinctions  are  as 
follows:  (i)  Wool  is  usually  possessed  of  more  staple 
than  hair;  (2)  it  is  more  pliable,  softer  and  more  elastic; 
(3)  it  is  more  dense  than  hair,  the  number  of  wool  fibers 
being  much  greater  on  a  given  surface  than  the  number  of 
hairs  on  the  same ;  (4)  all  wools  are  possessed  of  more  or 
less  crimp  and  curve  or  wave,  while  hair  is  straight,  or  but 
slightly  wavy.  It  is  also  stronger  than  wool.  This  com- 
parison is  made  between  sheep  and  the  various  quadru- 
peds kept  on  the  farm  other  than  sheep.  It  will  not  hold 
good  in  every  particular  when  contrasted  with  the  cover- 
ing of  some  of  the  fur-bearing  animals.  The  exact  point 
where  the  distinctions  come  in  between  wool  and  hair 
is  not  in  all  instances  easily  determined. 

Mohair  and  Cashmere  wool  are  prominent  among  the 
hairlike  products  that  have  attained  to  much  prominence 
in  the  manufacture  of  clothing.  The  former  is  a  lustrous 
wool,  obtained  from  the  Angora  goat.  It  is  of  good  length, 
pure  white  in  color,  has  a  high  luster,  and  is  fine  and 
wavy.  It  is  used  in  making  astrakhans,  velvets,  fine 
wraps  and  half-silk  goods.  The  latter  is  the  fine  and  ex- 
tremely soft  white  or  gray  fur  of  the  Cashmere  goat  bred 
in  Thibet.  The  outer  covering  consists  of  long  tufts  of 
hair,  and  underneath  it  is  the  Cashmere  wool  of  com- 
merce. It  is  a  soft  downy  wool  of  a  brownish  gray 
tint,  and  has  a  fine  silky  fiber.  It  is  used  in  making  the 
costly  Oriental  shawls  and  the  finest  wraps. 

The  contrast  between  the  covering  of  the  improved 
and  unimproved  breeds  is  very  great.  In  the  latter,  the 
wool  fibers  are  shorter  and  less  dense,  as  a  rule.  They 


6O  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

fall  short  of  the  standard  of  good  wool  in  all  its  essen- 
tial characteristics.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  less 
degree  of  the  strength  of  fiber  in  the  wool  and  the  lack 
of  uniformity  in  the  strength  of  the  same.  The  contrast 
is  even  more  marked  in  the  unevenness  of  the  length  of 
the  wool  as  distributed  over  the  body  and  in  the  varia- 
tions in  the  quality  of  the  same.  In  the  latter  sense  these 
variations  are  so  marked  that  the  covering  on  some  parts 
of  the  body  is  wool,  and  on  other  parts  of  the  same  it 
bears  a  closer  resemblance  to  hair.  In  the  improved 
breeds,  hair  is  almost  entirely  wanting,  save  on  the  legs 
and  head,  and  the  amount  of  this  covering  on  the  parts 
named  differs  much  in  the  different  breeds. 

Discussion  of  fiber  in  wool — Fiber  in  wool  means 
each  distinct  filament  of  which  the  fleece — that  is,  the 
covering  of  the  sheep — is  composed.  Each  fiber  is  usually 
essentially  circular  in  form,  more  or  less  crimped  or 
waved,  and  in  many  instances  is  larger  at  the  extremity 
and  near  the  base  than  in  the  center  of  the  fiber.  This 
is  not  true,  however,  of  Merino  wool  of  the  first  grade. 
When  grown  in  temperate  climates  the  fibers  are  essen- 
tially circular  in  form,  but  when  grown  in  a  hot  climate 
they  incline  to  a  flattish  oval.  Crimp  means  deviation 
from  straight  growth  in  the  wool  fibers  (see  page  78).  In 
some  instances  it  takes  the  form  of  folding,  as  it  were,  of 
the  fiber  on  itself,  and  in  other  instances  a  wavy  or  spiral 
character  of  growth.  Climates  unduly  cold  may  eliminate 
crimp,  and  those  unduly  hot  may  tend  to  make  it  exces- 
sive. The  greater  size  of  the  diameter  at  the  base  and 
toward  the  tips  of  the  wool  fibers  arises  probably  from  the 
less  friction  in  the  fibers  at  these  points. 

When  the  animal  is  healthy  and  thrifty,  the  appear- 
ance of  the  fiber  is  brilliant.  It  has  a  shining,  glistening 
appearance  when  the  wool  is  parted  on  any  part  of  the 
body  of  the  sheep.  This  bright  lustrous  appearance  is 
caused  by  the  yolk,  which,  exuding  from  the  glands  of  the 
skin  moves  on  toward  the  tips  of  the  hairs  and  keeps  them 


WOOL  DESCRIBED  AND   CLASSIFIED  6l 

oiled,  as  it  were,  along  their  entire  lengths.  The  color  of 
the  fiber  is  usually  a  pure  white,  but  in  some  instances  it 
is  tinted  with  yellow  shades,  as  when  the  yolk  is  present 
in  large  quantities.  When  sheep  are  out  of  condition 
the  wool  is  dull  and  lusterless. 

In  size  the  wool  fibers  vary  greatly.  These  varia- 
tions are  in  a  marked  degree  the  outcome  of  breeding, 
but  they  are  also  influenced  by  climate  and  food.  The 
variations  in  length  run  all  the  way  from  less  than  2 
inches  to  20  inches.  The  variations  in  the  diameter  of  the 
fiber  are  even  greater.  They  run  all  the  way  from 
i-3,oooth  of  an  inch  in  the  very  finest  of  the  merino  types 
to  i-275th  of  an  inch  in  the  coarsest  Algerian  sheep. 

Each  wool  fiber  is  composed  of  two  parts,  known  as 
the  stem  or  shaft  and  the  root  or  bulb,  out  of  which  the 
stem  rises,  and  on  which  it  is  dependent  for  its  sustenance. 
The  bulb  or  root  imbedded  in  the  derma  is  implanted  in  a 
gland  known  as  the  hair  follicle.  It  is  simply  an  enlarge- 
ment which  fits  somewhat  socket-like  into  the  fiber  sack 
which  incases  it.  It  rests  upon  a  small  bulb  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  fiber  sack.  This  small  sack  is  at  once  the 
source  of  and  the  support  of  the  fiber.  The  hair  follicle 
is  formed  of  the  epidermis  and  the  dermis  of  the  sheep's 
skin.  It  penetrates  the  body  only  for  a  short  distance. 
The  blood  vessels,  in  minute  and  numerous  branches,  are 
distributed  over  the  walls  of  the  follicle.  The  nourish- 
ment thus  furnished  is  molded  into  the  structure  of  the 
fiber.  Should  a  fiber  be  plucked  out,  a  new  one  may  be 
produced  to  take  its  place.  The  hair  or  wool  follicle  is 
to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  follicle  which  pro- 
duces perspiration  and  that  from  which  the  yolk  exudes. 

The  shaft  is  that  portion  of  the  fiber  which  rises  up 
from  the  root  bulb  of  the  same,  and  continuing  to  grow 
outward  with  other  fibers,  forms  the  fleece  of  the  sheep. 
All  the  elements  of  growth  are  furnished  by  the  hair  germ, 
which  rises  into  the  hair  bulb.  It  is  not  the  function  of 
the  yolk  to  furnish  nutriment  to  the  fiber. 


62  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

Each  wool  fiber  is  made  up  of  three  layers  or  por- 
tions. These  are  known  respectively  as  the  epidermis, 
the  cortical  substance  and  the  medullary  substance.  The 
epidermis  or  outer  layer,  which  is  very  thin,  embraces 
a  vast  number  of  imbricated  scales,  lying  on  one  another. 
These  are  formed  by  the  growth  of  cells,  which,  as  they 
grow,  assume  the  form  of  scales,  and  in  a  healthy  sheep 
they  have  a  high  luster.  The  new  portion  pushes  out  the 
old.  The  scales  overlap  and  thus  constitute  the  felting 
properties  of  the  wool.  They  also  tend  to  keep  dirt  from 
entering  the  fleece.  The  cortical  substance,  or  intermedi- 
ate layer,  is  fibrous  in  character  and  forms  two-thirds 
of  the  substance  of  each  fiber,  and  also  contains  the  mat- 
ter which  gives  color  to  the  wool.  The  medullary  sub- 
stance, or  inner  layer,  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  marrow 
of  the  fiber.  A  majority  of  the  fibers  have  the  marrow  hol- 
low through  much  of  their  length. 

Discussion  of  yolk  in  wool — Yolk  (see  page  74)  is  an 
alkaline  soapy  substance  secreted  from  the  glands  of  the 
skin.  The  yolk  follicle  empties  into  the  wool  follicle  near 
the  mouth  of  the  latter,  and  extending  therefrom  it  lubri- 
cates the  fibers  to  their  outer  extremities.  It  also  lubri- 
cates the  skin. 

The  chief  function  of  yolk  in  wool  is  to  prevent  the 
fibers  from  felting  together  and  to  prevent  them  from 
wearing  by  friction ;  but  it  also  tends  to  protect  the  fleece 
from  the  accumulation  of  foreign  substances  within  it. 
The  less  wear  in  the  fibers  that  are  well  supplied  with 
yolk  accounts  in  part  at  least  for  the  greater  strength 
of  fiber  in  wools  well  supplied  with  the  same.  The  pro- 
tection thus  furnished  from  rain  acts  similarly.  The 
wool  is  protected  from  foreign  substances,  in  part  at  least, 
by  the  outward  movement  of  the  yolk.  The  edges  of  the 
scales  on  the  fiber-like  little  barbs  point  toward  the  tip  of 
the  fiber,  and,  therefore,  carry  the  yolk  outward  along 
with  more  or  less  substances  that  may  have  found  their 
way  into  the  fleece.  Those  wools  which  possess  the 


WOOL    DESCRIBED   AND    CLASSIFIED  63 

greatest  number  of  imbrications  to  the  square  inch  require 
the  greatest  amount  of  yolk.  Such  is  the  wool  of  the 
Merino,  with  its  high  felting  properties.  Yolk  is  liquid 
when  it  exudes  from  the  yolk  glands,  and  in  some  breeds 
it  remains  so ;  but  in  others  it  turns  into  gummy  or  waxy 
orange-yellow  scales,  which  adhere  to  the  wool.  Even 
when  it  thus  accumulates  it  does  not  materially  weaken 
the  strength  of  the  fibers. 

The  chief  of  the  influences  that  affect  yolk  in  wool 
are  food,  protection  and  breeding.  The  relation  between 
liberal  feeding  and  the  plentiful  production  of  yolk  is  of 
the  closest  nature.  Food  that  promotes  thrift  also  tends 
to  increase  the  amount  of  yolk  in  the  wool.  The  rela- 
tion between  food  and  yolk  is  so  intimate  that  the  differ- 
ence in  the  amount  of  the  same  and  the  difference  in  the 
strength  of  the  wool  resulting  will  be  apparent  on  differ- 
ent soils  separated  only  by  a  river  bed.  Protection,  as  by 
housing  when  rain  storms  prevail  and  by  blanketing  un- 
der certain  conditions,  not  only  tends  to  keep  the  yolk  in 
condition,  but  it  also  tends  to  increase  in  its  accumulation. 
The  quantity  of  yolk  in  wool  may  be  increased  or  de- 
creased through  transmission  in  breeding.  Such  trans- 
mission may  be  looked  for  when  breeding  pure  breds  or 
grades. 

The  amount  of  yolk  that  is  desirable  and  the  condi- 
tions in  which  it  is  found  are  by  no  means  unimportant. 
With  reference  to  the  former,  however,  there  is  not  en- 
tire agreement.  Yolk  is  seldom  present  in  excess  as  long 
as  it  remains  in  the  liquefied  form,  and  colorless  or  nearly 
so,  in  the  unshorn  fleece.  It  is  usually  in  excess  when  it 
forms  dry  or  pasty  masses  in  the  wool,  nor  is  it  in  a  de- 
sirable condition  when  exposure  to  rain  washes  it  down 
so  as  to  form  a  pasty,  gluey  mass  in  the  fleece.  Yolk  is 
deficient  in  wool  when  the  latter  lacks  softness  and 
pliancy  to  the  touch  and  when  it  lacks  brilliancy  of  luster 
when  the  fleece  is  opened  out. 


64  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

Of  course,  the  amount  of  yolk  required  varies  with 
the  class  of  wool.  (See  page  48.) 

How  wools  are  classified — Wools  are  classified:  (i) 
On  the  basis  of  length,  (2)  on  the  basis  of  diameter  in  the 
fiber,  and  (3)  on  the  basis  of  adaptation  to  use.  A  clearly 
definite  and  accurate  classification  in  either  respect  is 
scarcely  possible,  owing  to  the  difference  found  in  wool  of 
the  same  breed,  to  the  constant  changes  that  result  from 
crossing  and  grading,  and  to  the  modifications  which  re- 
sult from  time  to  time  from  the  introduction  of  improved 
machinery  in  the  manufacture  of  the  wool.  Short  wools 
are  sometimes  classified  as  carding  and  long  wools  as 
combing,  but  because  of  the  changes  referred  to,  the  dis- 
tinctions between  carding  and  combing  wools  have  been 
much  modified  during  recent  decades. 

Based  on  the  standard  of  length,  wool  from  the  dif- 
ferent pure  breeds  found  in  America  may  be  classed  as 
short,  intermediate  and  long,  but  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture, they  are  usually  known  as  short  and  long.  The 
American  Merino  and  the  Southdown  breeds  produce 
short  wool.  The  Leicester,  Cotswold  and  Lincoln  breeds 
produce  long  wool.  The  other  breeds  produce  wool  that, 
strictly  speaking,  is  of  intermediate  length,  but  which 
usually  comes  under  the  classification  of  combing  wool. 
The  length  of  the  wool  of  this  class  differs  considerably. 
The  Oxford  Down  breed  produces  the  longest  wool  in  the 
intermediate  class.  The  wool  produced  by  some  of  the 
breeds  is  so  nearly  alike  in  length  that  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  decide  as  to  which  is  the  longer. 

On  the  basis  of  diameter  in  the  fiber,  wool  is  classi- 
fied as  superfine,  fine,  medium  and  coarse.  Superfine 
wools  are  those  of  the  very  finest  character,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  best  of  the  Saxony  and  Merino  grades.  Fine 
wools  are  chiefly  furnished  by  the  Merino  in  its  various 
branches,  as  the  American  Merino,  the  Delaine  and  the 
Rambouillet,  and  also  by  high  grades  of  these  breeds. 
Medium  wools  usually  include  those  obtained  from  the 


WOOL   DESCRIBED  AND   CLASSIFIED  65 

various  Down  breeds — the  Tunis,  the  Dorsets  and  the 
Cheviots — also  from  grades  of  these.  Coarse  wools  are  ob- 
tained from  the  long  wooled  breeds  and  from  the  West 
Highland  sheep  and  grades  of  all  these  breeds. 

In  the  order  of  fineness  it  would  be  correct  to  say  that 
of  three  fine  wool  breeds  the  American  Merino  produces 
the  finest  grade,  the  Delaine  coming  next  in  fineness,  and 
the  Rambouillet  third,  but  the  difference  in  this  respect 
is  not  a  wide  one.  It  would  be  at  least  approximately 
correct  to  say  that  in  the  order  of  fineness  in  medium  wool, 
the  pure  breeds  in  America  rank  as  follows,  beginning 
with  the  finest:  Southdown,  Tunis,  Dorset,  Shropshire, 
Cheviot,  Suffolk  Down,  Hampshire  Down  and  Oxford 
Down.  The  coarse  wooled  breeds,  beginning  with  the 
finest  wool,  will  rank  as  follows :  Leicester,  Lincoln,  Cots- 
wold  and  West  Highland. 

Wool  is  further  classified  on  the  basis  of  use.  On 
this  basis  it  may  be  divided  into  three  great  classes. 
These  are:  (i)  Carding  wools,  which  are  used  for  mak- 
ing garments  for  ordinary  wear,  and  which  are  also  very 
commonly  classified  as  clothing  wools.  These  are  used 
mainly  as  broadcloths  and  the  thicker  and  heavier  woolen 
cloths.  (2)  Combing  wools,  which,  generally  speaking, 
are  made  into  garments  calling  for  superior  softness, 
lightness  and  strength  of  wear.  In  the  finer  sorts  they 
are  much  used  for  making  garments  that  are  much  prized 
and  worn  by  women.  The  better  class  of  these  are  known 
as  delaines  (see  page  70).  (3)  Carpet  and  knitting  wools. 
These  are  also  combing  wools,  but  of  a  class  far  different 
from  the  delaines.  They  include  the  cheapest,  coarsest 
and  harshest  sorts  of  wool.  They  approach  more  nearly 
to  hair  than  other  wools.  These  wools  are  now  virtually 
all  imported.  The  only  staple  of  this  class  now  grown  in 
the  United  States  comes  from  the  original  Mexican  sheep 
of  the  southwest. 

Short,  intermediate  and  long  wools — The  length  of 
wool  ordinarily  runs  all  the  way  from,  say  less  than  2 


66  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

inches,  to  more  than  20  inches.  The  classification  based 
on  length  is  not  accurately  denned.  In  a  general  way  it 
may  be  said  short  wools  are  not  more  than  2^  inches 
long.  They  are  obtained  from  the  Saxony  and  Silesian 
breeds  and  from  some  types  of  the  Merino.  For  general 
qualities  and  fineness  of  fiber  these  wools  are  unexcelled. 
The  fiber  is  not  only  short,  but  it  is  also  fine  and  strong 
and  elastic,  and  is  possessed  of  good  felting  qualities.  It 
is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  clothes  where  much 
milling  is  required.  Much  milling  is  a  process  by  which 
the  fibers  are  condensed,  as  it  were,  so  as  to  make  the 
clothes  stronger  and  firmer.  It  is  made  into  superfine  and 
dress-faced  fabrics  of  relatively  high  value. 

Intermediate  wool  is  more  than  2^2  inches  long  and 
not  more  than  say  5  inches.  It  includes  all  that  class 
known  as  delaines,  which  means  fine  combing  wools  from 
pure  and  grade  Merinos  that  exceed  say  2j^  inches  in 
length.  These  are  amongst  the  most  valuable  of  the 
combing  wools.  (See  page  70.)  It  also  includes  the 
dark-faced  breeds  in  America,  to  which  may  be  added  the 
Dorsets,  the  Tunis  and  the  Cheviots.  The  wool  of  these 
is  made  into  many  kinds  of  fabrics. 

The  long  wools  are  more  than  5  inches  in  length,  and 
they  may  be  as  much  as  20  inches.  They  are,  of  course, 
combing  wools,  and  they  are  made  into  many  fabrics, 
strong  and  of  good  wearing  properties,  but  lacking  in  the 
finish  and  fineness  of  the  garments  made  from  the  other 
wools. 

Superfine,  fine,  intermediate  and  coarse  wools  —  The 
classification  of  wool  on  the  basis  of  diameter  in  the  fiber 
is  difficult,  owing  (i)  to  the  influence  of  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  food  on  the  fiber,  (2)  of  the  general  character 
of  the  climate,  and  (3)  to  individuality  in  the  members  of 
the  flock.  Food,  rich  and  abundant,  strengthens  the  fiber 
more  than  it  affects  the  diameter,  but  it  influences  the  lat- 
ter also  in  the  direction  of  increase.  Warm  climates  tend 
to  increase  in  the  diameter  of  wool  fibers,  but  to  decrease 


WOOL   DESCRIBED  AND   CLASSIFIED  67 

in  their  number,  and  the  reverse  of  this  is  true  of  climates 
cool  to  cold.  These  influences,  however,  act  with  measur- 
able slowness.  Individuals  in  the  flock  may  differ  consid- 
erably from  one  another  in  the  degree  of  the  fineness  of 
the  fiber.  This,  however,  should  not  be  a  serious  hin- 
drance to  present  classification,  although  by  selection  in 
breeding  it  may  in  time  considerably  modify  the  classifi- 
cation, by  improving  it. 

Classification  on  the  basis  of  diameter,  as  previously 
intimated,  divides  wool  into  superfine,  fine,  intermediate 
and  coarse.  But  the  line  of  change  between  these  is  not 
absolutely  and  unchangeably  settled,  some  of  the  reasons 
for  which  are  given  above. 

It  can  scarcely  be  said  that  wools  classed  as  super- 
fine are  produced  to  any  considerable  extent  in  America. 
These  are  furnished  largely  by  the  Saxony  and  Silesian 
breeds,  which  are  not  now  and  never  have  been  numer- 
ous in  this  country.  It  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  some 
of  the  Merino  wools  produced  in  this  country  have 
equaled  in  fineness  the  finest  of  the  wools  produced  by 
the  breeds  named.  The  finest  Saxony  and  Silesian  wools 
have  a  diameter  of  fiber  running  from  say  i-2,oooth  to 
i-i,6ooth  of  an  inch.  Lamb's  wool  is  the  finest,  and  next 
in  fineness  is  the  clip  taken  from  sheep  at  one  year.  The 
former  is  taken  when  the  lambs  are  about  six  months  old. 
Superfine  wools  are  made  into  garments  light,  soft  and  of 
relatively  high  values. 

The  fine  wool  breeds  in  America  include  all  the  vari- 
ous types  of  the  American  Merino,  pure  and  high  grade, 
the  Delaine  in  its  various  families,  and  the  Rambouillet. 
These  are  named  in  order  of  fineness,  beginning  with  the 
finest,  but  the  wool  furnished  by  individual  animals  may 
not  be  in  entire  agreement  with  this  classification.  The 
fiber  in  the  Merino,  with  some  individual  exceptions  in 
which  the  wool  is  finer,  runs  from  say  i-i, Sooth  of  an  inch 
to  i-i,4OOth  and  in  some  instances  it  is  even  greater.  The 
Delaine  and  Rambouillet  types  produce  wool  not  much 


68  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

less  fine.  High  grade  Merinos  also  produce  wool  that  is 
quite  fine.  The  Australian  Merino  in  the  best  grades  is 
but  little  behind  the  American  Merino.  The  finer  of 
these  wools  are  largely  made  into  light  and  soft  fabrics 
for  woman's  wear  and  the  medium  into  worsted  and  de- 
laine goods. 

The  intermediate  wools  produced  in  this  country,  as 
previously  intimated,  come  from  the  following  breeds, 
which  are  named  in  the  order  of  their  fineness,  beginning 
with  the  finest:  Southdown,  Tunis,  Dorset,  Shropshire, 
Cheviot,  Suffolk,  Hampshire  and  Oxford.  This  classifi- 
cation may  be  challenged,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  it  can  be 
improved  upon  at  the  present  time.  The  finest  of  these 
is  the  Southdown,  the  fibers  of  which  have  a  diameter  of 
about  i-iiooth  of  an  inch.  These  wools,  known  as  cloth- 
ing wools,  are  made  into  a  great  variety  of  clothes,  a 
majority  of  which  are  for  everyday  wear.  They  also  fur- 
nish blankets. 

The  coarse  wools  produced  in  this  country  come  from 
the  following  breeds,  named  in  the  order  of  their  fineness, 
beginning  with  the  finest:  Leicester,  Lincoln,  Cots  wold 
and  Black  Faced  Highland.  These  are  used  for  making 
garments  coarse  of  texture,  but  that  will  endure  much 
wear.  Wools  still  coarser  than  some  of  the  above  come 
from  Peru,  Chile,  Russia,  Turkey,  Greece  and  China, 
These  are  made  into  carpets  and  the  coarsest  kinds  of 
goods,  also  into  knitting  yarn. 

Carding  and  combing  wools — From  the  standpoint  of 
the  manufacturer,  all  wools  are  classified  as  carding  or 
combing.  The  former  seldom  exceed  2  to  4  inches  in 
length,  the  latter  include  wools  that  are  longer.  But 
these  distinctions  are  being  modified  by  the  French 
methods  of  spinning,  which  comb  and  spin  even  wools 
that  are  short. 

Carding  wools  are  sometimes  called  felting  wools. 
Felting  is  the  amalgamation  or  matting  of  the  fibers.  The 
small  toothlike  projections  of  one  fiber  catch  into  those 


WOOL   DESCRIBED  AND   CLASSIFIED  69 

of  another  adjacent  thereto,  and  become  entangled  or  in- 
terlocked. The  deeper  the  scales  fit  into  one  another,  the 
closer  is  the  structure  of  the  thread.  The  process  of  inter- 
locking is  aided  by  the  curly  nature  of  the  fiber,  which 
inclines  it  to  twist  around  any  adjacent  object.  It  is  fur- 
ther aided  by  what  is  termed  the  milling  process.  During 
this  process  pressure  is  applied  to  it  in  the  presence  of 
some  lubricant,  such  as  soap  and  warm  water.  The  felt- 
ing process  is  accompanied  by  shrinkage  of  a  kind  that 
lessens  the  area  covered  by  the  cloth,  but  adds  to  its 
thickness. 

The  felting  value  of  wool  is  largely  determined  by  the 
number  of  the  serrations  per  inch  in  the  fiber  and  by  the 
freedom  with  which  the  upper  edge  of  the  side  projects 
from  the  fiber.  The  process  known  as  carbonization 
opens  out  the  scales  and  thereby  increases  felting  power 
in  the  wool.  A  similar  result  follows  the  application  of 
lime  or  acid  to  the  wool  on  pelts.  The  serrations  are  the 
most  numerous  and  the  most  clearly  defined  in  wool  of 
the  various  Merino  types.  These  serrations  vary  greatly 
in  the  different  wools.  More  commonly  the  larger  and 
coarser  the  wool,  the  fewer  are  the  number  of  the  serra- 
tions. Merino  wools  have  been  grown  in  Vermont  with 
3,000  serrations  to  the  inch,  but  the  average  is  somewhat 
fewer  than  2,000.  The  best  Saxony  wools  contain  2,800 
to  the  inch  and  the  best  Australian,  2,400.  Southdown 
wool  contains  about  2,000,  Leicester  wool  1,800  and  com- 
mon domestic  wool  about  1,200.  In  some  of  the  inferior 
wools  the  number  is  sometimes  less  than  500.  These 
short-stapled  carding  wools  are  made  into  broadcloths, 
and  the  thicker  sorts  of  woolen  clothing.  They  are  also 
used  for  the  production  of  woolen  yarns. 

Combing  wools  are  prepared  for  spinning  by  a  proc- 
ess known  as  combing.  In  this  process  the  fibers  are 
made  to  lay  parallel  with  one  another  preparatory  to 
spinning  them  into  thread,  while  in  carding  wools  they 
become  inextricably  intermixed.  As  previously  shown, 


MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 


these  virtually  embrace  all  wools  from  a  few  inches  and 
upward  in  length,  and  they  are  combed  to  be  made  into 
coarse  worsted  yarns.  One  class  of  these  is  known  as 
the  delaine,  and  the  other  as  carpet  and  knitting  wools. 
The  latter  are  coarse,  long  and  strong. 

Delaine  wools  are  fine  combing  wools  with  staple  of 
medium  length.  They  come  between  the  short-stapled 
carding  wools  and  the  longer  and  coarser  types  of  comb- 
ing wool.  They  virtually  include  all  combing  wools  that 
contain  much  Merino  blood.  They  are  first  carded  and 
then  combed  for  the  production  of  fine  worsted  yarns  for 

ladies'  dress  goods,  light 
and  soft  and  of  superior 
excellence. 

Homemade  rugs  are 
sometimes  made  from 
the  skins  of  sheep  and 
lambs.  The  skins  for 
such  use  should  be  re- 
moved with  much  care, 
so  that  they  will  be  free 
from  cuts  and  from 
adherent  flesh.  It  is 
then  washed  in  warm 

water  with  salt  and  alum  dissolved  in  it  of  equal  propor- 
tions. It  is  then  wrung  and  spread  on  a  table  and 
stretched  and  scraped  smooth.  It  is  next  sprinkled  with 
finely  powdered  salt  and  alum  and  left  for  two  weeks. 
Then  follows  washing  in  warm  water  with  soft  soap 
added,  wringing,  stretching  and  pulling  until  it  is  soft 
and  pliable,  after  which  it  is  dried.  The  stretching  and 
pulling  are  continued  until  the  skins  are  quite  dry,  with 
a  view  to  keep  them  soft.  Such  skins  make  admirable 
rugs  for  a  carriage  or  for  house  wear,  and  they  may  be 
dyed  to  suit  the  fancy. 

Wool  as  distributed  over  the  body — The  quality  of 
the  wool  varies  greatly  on  different  parts  of  the  body  in 


FIG.  4— WOOL  AS  CLASSIFIED  ON  THE 
SHEEP 


WOOL   DESCRIBED  AND   CLASSIFIED  71 

the  same  animal.  Before  being  milled  it  is  sorted  or 
graded — that  is,  divided  into  various  classes  according  to 
its  quality — in  order  that  each  grade  may  be  made  into 
that  class  of  goods  for  which  it  is  best  suited.  What  may 
be  termed  extreme  grading  divides  the  wool  into  four- 
teen classes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  In  Nos.  I  and  2 — that 
is,  on  the  shoulder  and  side — the  best  grades  of  wool  are 
found.  The  wool  in  No.  2  is  slightly  stronger  and  coarser 
than  in  No.  I,  otherwise  the  quality  is  about  the  same. 
In  both  it  is  of  relatively  good  length  and  strength  of 
staple  and  is  soft  and  uniform.  In  Nos.  3,  4  and  5,  what 
may  be  termed  second  choice  wool  is  found.  In  all  of 
these  the  staple  is  relatively  short  and  the  quality  lowers 
slightly  in  the  order  given.  In  No.  6  is  produced  wool  on 
the  back  and  loin  that  may  be  given  third  place.  In  Nos. 
7,  8  and  9  the  wool  is  relatively  long  and  strong.  No.  8, 
sometimes  called  the  breech,  furnishes  the  coarsest  wool 
of  the  entire  fleece.  In  No.  10  it  is  short  and  more  or  less 
dirty.  In  No.  II  it  is  short  and  relatively  fine.  In  No.  12 
the  short  wool  is  usually  damaged  some  by  rubbing.  In 
Nos.  13  and  14  it  is  of  but  little  value.  In  each  gradation 
there  is  some  peculiarity  that  makes  it  diff-erent  from  the 
others. 

Grading  the  fleece  as  above  outlined  is  not  univer- 
sally adhered  to.  Another  system,  outlined  in  the  Inter- 
national Library  of  Technology,  is  now  more  generally  in 
favor  apparently  than  that  given  above.  It  grades  wool 
on  different  parts  of  the  fleece  by  the  following  gradation, 
each  successive  grading  being  less  valuable  than  the  pre- 
ceding: (i)  Shoulders  and  sides;  (2)  lower  part  of  the 
body;  (3)  loin  and  back;  (4)  upper  part  of  legs;  (5) 
upper  portion  of  the  neck ;  (6)  central  part  of  the  back ; 
(7)  the  belly;  (8)  the  root  of  the  tail  sometimes  called 
the  rumps;  (9)  the  lower  part  of  the  legs;  (10)  the  head, 
throat  and  chest,  the  wool  on  these  having  practically  the 
same  characteristics;  and  (n)  the  shins  or  shank. 

A  third  division  of  the  qualities  of  wool,  and  which 


MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 


also  is  possessed  of  much  merit,  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The 
best  wool  —  that  is,  the  finest  and  most  evenly  grown  —  is 
always  found  on  the  shoulders,  I, 
i.  Not  infrequently  this  high 
quality  wool  shades  into  2,  2,  5 
and  6.  In  the  wool  trade  these 
are  known  as  picklock  and  prime. 
When  the  wool  at  4,  shorter  than 
i,  i,  is  free  from  colored  hairs,  it 
is  super-excellent.  The  wool  at 
3,  3  is  shorter  and  less  closely 
grown  than  I,  I.  The  quality  of 
6  is  not  much  below  that  of  2,  2, 
into  which  it  shades,  and  also 
which  it  resembles.  For  many 
uses  the  wool  at  i,  i,  2,  2,  5  and 

f-  fot-Ati    fr.o-^fVi^i-        "Ra^Vixrar/l 

°  are  taKen  togetner.    JoacKwara 
from  6,  the  wool  becomes  increas- 

ingly coarse,  the  best  being  found  at  7,  7.    At  8,  9  and  9 

the  coarsest  wool  is  found,  that  at  8  being  the  coarsest. 

The  wool  grows  in  large  locks  of  coarse  hair  and  can  only 

be  used  for  coarse  yarns. 


FIG.  5—  THE    SHORN    FLEECE 

AS  FREQUENTLY  CLASSIFIED 


CHAPTER   V 
CHARACTERISTICS  OF  WOOL 

The  discussion  in  Chapter  V  treats  of  the  following 
phases  of  the  various  qualities  and  characters  that  per- 
tain to  wool:  (i)  The  leading  characteristics  of  wool; 
(2)  strength  of  fiber;  (3)  length  of  staple;  (4)  thickness 
or  density;  (5)  crimp  or  curl;  (6)  softness  or  pliancy; 
(7)  color  in  the  staple ;  (8)  uniformity  in  fleece ;  (9)  style 
or  quality;  (10)  closure  of  fleece;  (n)  felting;  (12)  cloud- 
iness; (13)  stripy  or  watery  wool;  (14)  break  or  joint; 
(15)  kemp  or  jar;  (16)  toppiness,  broad  toppiness,  black 
top  and  clots;  and  (17)  influences  from  environment  that 
are  hurtful.  The  discussion  of  these  must  of  necessity  be 
brief. 

Leading  characteristics  of  wool — The  more  important 
of  the  essential  qualities  in  good  wool  are:  (i)  Strength 
of  fiber;  (2)  length  of  staple;  (3)  thickness  or  density; 
(4)  crimp  or  curl;  (5)  softness  or  pliancy;  (6)  color  in 
staple ;  (7)  uniformity  in  fleece ;  (8)  style  or  quality ;  and 
(9)  closure  of  fleece.  The  different  degrees  in  which  these 
characters  are  possessed  is  in  some  instances  very 
marked.  Prominent  among  the  defects  in  wool  are  felt- 
ing of  the  fleece  in  whole  or  in  part,  cloudiness  or  dis- 
coloration, a  stripy  condition,  break  or  joint,  kemp  or  jar 
and  toppiness,  broad  toppiness,  black  top  and  clots.  For 
the  discussion  of  these  see  p.  84. 

In  addition  to  the  defects  in  wool  from  the  sources 
named  above,  there  are  certain  baneful  influences  which 
result  from  environment  that  are  hurtful  to  wool.  These 
are  dwelt  upon  later  (see  p.  91).  Like  the  defects  in 
wool  enumerated  above,  they  are  all  preventable  where 
the  management  is  what  it  ought  to  be.  For  the  discus- 
sion of  these  see  pp.  84-92. 

73 


74  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

Strength  of  fiber  in  wool— Strength  of  fiber  in  wool 
means  the  ability  which  it  has  throughout  its  entire 
length  to  resist  the  force  of  distention.  The  true  measure 
of  the  strength  of  fiber  is  the  strength  of  its  weakest  part. 
It  will  not  avail  to  have  fiber  strong  through  much  of  its 
length  when  weak  through  any  part  of  the  same.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  and  important  qualities  in  wool,  as 
on  the  strength  of  the  fiber  depends  in  a  large  measure 
the  value  of  wool  for  manufacturing  uses. 

Among  the  important  indications  of  strength  of  fiber 
are,  first,  a  bright  glistening  appearance  in  the  wool ;  sec- 
ond, an  abundance  of  oil  or  yolk  in  the  same ;  and  third, 
uniformity  in  the  size  of  the  fiber.  The  glistening  ap- 
pearance is  largely  the  outcome  of  an  abundance  of  yolk 
in  the  wool,  but  this  lustrous  appearance  is  also  accentu- 
ated by  the  reflection  of  scales  that  surround  the  fiber. 
Its  presence,  however,  is  not  an  absolute  guaranty  of 
strength  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  fiber,  for 
there  may  have  been  periods  during  the  growth  of  the 
fiber,  when  an  abundance  of  yolk  was  not  present,  a  con- 
dition that  would  be  adverse  to  strength  of  fiber  at  such 
times.  During  any  periods  when  yolk  is  not  adequately 
present,  there  is  more  or  less  wear  in  the  fibers  through 
friction.  Insufficient  nutrition  which  causes  an  insuffi- 
ciency of  yolk  also  causes  weak  fiber  through  lack  of  food 
supplied  to  the  same.  It  lacks  strength,  therefore,  from 
lack  of  food  and  through  excessive  friction.  Lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  size  of  the  fiber  may  be  so  marked  that  in 
some  instances  it  is  apparent  to  the  eye  unaided.  In  other 
instances  it  can  only  be  detected  with  a  microscope.  It  is 
of  great  importance  in  wool,  as  when  weak  beyond  a  cer- 
tain degree,  it  breaks  during  certain  of  the  processes  of 
manufacture. 

Since  strength  of  fiber  is  the  outcome  of  nourishment 
and  of  lubrication,  and  since  both  are  produced  by  food, 
it  becomes  apparent  that  if  the  fiber  is  to  be  uniform  in 
size  and  strength,  the  food  fed  should  be  suitable  and  am- 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   WOOL  75 

pie  during  the  entire  period  covered  by  the  growth  of  the 
fiber.  Should  the  nourishment  be  insufficient  at  any  time 
to  the  needs  of  the  animal,  the  wool,  from  lack  of  nourish- 
ment, will  not  develop  properly  at  such  a  time.  It  will 
lack  size  and  strength  of  fiber,  proportioned  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  period  during  which  the  nourishment  was 
insufficient  and  to  the  extent  to  which  it  was  lacking. 
Other  conditions  that  may  lower  stamina  in  sheep,  as  un- 
due exposure,  annoyance  beyond  a  certain  degree  from 
insect  pests  and  disease,  will  weaken  the  fiber.  The  im- 
portance of  what  may  be  termed  evenness  of  condition  in 
sheep  cannot  be  over-estimated  in  its  relation  to  uni- 
formity of  strength  of  fiber  in  the  wool.  This  property 
may  also  be  influenced  in  some  slight  degree  by  inherit- 
ance. Such  influence,  however,  if  it  exists,  is  of  small  im- 
portance compared  with  the  influences  already  stated. 

Length  of  staple  in  wool — Length  of  staple  in  wool 
means  simply  length  of  the  wool  fibers.  It  has  an  im- 
portant bearing,  first,  on  the  weight  of  the  fleece ;  second, 
on  the  profit  from  the  same,  as  the  result  of  the  former; 
and  third,  on  the  character  of  the  goods  manufactured. 
Difference  in  length  may  take  wool  from  the  carding  into 
the  combing  class  in  the  same  breed  of  sheep. 

The  variations  in  the  length  of  the  staple  in  wool  are 
very  great.  In  some  instances  it  has  attained  a  length 
of  18  to  20  inches  as  the  result  of  one  year's  growth ;  in 
other  instances  the  growth  is  even  less  than  an  inch.  The 
variations  between  these  extremes  are  of  all  lengths.  It 
would  be  approximately  correct  to  say  that  short  wools 
are  less  than  3  inches  long,  intermediate  wools  are  some- 
where between,  say  3  and  5  or  6  inches. 

Variations  in  length  of  staple  in  wools  are  caused  by 
such  influences  as  breed,  food,  grade  and  age.  Each 
breed  has  a  standard  of  length  written  or  unwritten,  usu- 
ally the  latter.  This  standard  is  not  so  inflexible  that  it 
cannot  be  modified.  The  standard  of  length,  for  instance, 
is  longer  in  the  American  than  in  the  Spanish  Merino;  in 


76  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

the  Delaine  than  in  the  American  Merino;  and  in  the 
Rambouillet  than  in  the  Delaine  Merino.  Notwithstand- 
ing that  the  three  breeds  named  last  have  been  evolved 
from  the  first. 

The.  influence  of  food  on  the  length  of  staple  is  consid- 
erable. It  is  probably  less,  however,  than  the  influence  of 
breed  and  of  selection  in  breeding.  Generous  feeding 
makes  modification  in  the  length  of  the  wool  fibers  easier 
in  the  direction  of  increase,  but  it  would  seem  correct  to 
say  that  the  influence  of  food  is  much  greater  on  the  diam- 
eter of  the  wool  fibers  than  on  the  length  of  the  staple. 

The  influence  from  grade — that  is,  from  cross  breed- 
ing and  grading  on  the  length  of  the  staple — is  very 
marked  in  many  instances.  It  is  marked  in  proportion  to 
the  contrast  between  the  length  of  the  staple  in  the 
breeds  crossed.  The  Cotswold  and  Lincoln  crosses  in- 
variably lengthen  the  staple  in  wool  when  crossed  upon 
the  other  breeds.  The  Southdown  cross  shortens  the 
same  in  nearly  all  breeds.  This  influence  on  the  length 
of  staple  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  other  influences 
named. 

The  influence  of  age  on  the  length  of  staple  is  not  in- 
considerable. The  longest  fleece  is  that  which  is  first 
taken  from  the  sheep  when  it  represents  one  year's 
growth.  This  is  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  greater  activity 
of  the  processes  that  relate  to  nutrition  in  the  same  ani- 
mal. The  second  shearing  will  furnish  wool  something 
less  in  length,  and  each  year  subsequently  there  will  be 
some  decrease  in  the  length  of  the  staple.  The  difference 
in  the  length  of  staple  between  a  young  sheep  and  the 
same  when  advanced  in  age  is  marked. 

Length  of  staple  is  secured  and  maintained  by  liberal 
feeding.  The  more  liberal  the  feeding,  up  to  a  certain 
limit,  the  longer  will  be  the  wool  fiber.  It  does  not  fol- 
low, however,  that  the  relation  between  food  and  growth 
in  the  wool  corresponds  exactly  to  the  relation  between 
food  and  flesh  production  in  the  same  animal.  For  in- 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   WOOL  77 

stance,  the  wool  fibers  in  an  animal  in  lean  condition  may 
be  longer  relatively  than  those  possessed  by  one  in  good 
condition.  Nature  in  this  way  makes  provision  for  the 
protection  of  the  animal.  Length  of  staple  may  be  in- 
creased through  selection  in  breeding,  backed  up  by  lib- 
eral feeding,  but  in  all  breeds  there  is  a  limit  in  the  length 
of  the  wool  fibers  beyond  which  it  may  not  be  desirable 
to  go,  just  as  there  is  a  limit  in  size  which  it  may  not  be 
desirable  to  exceed. 

Thickness  or  density  in  wool — Thickness  or  density  in 
wool  has  reference  to  the  number  of  the  fibers  that  grow 
on  a  given  area  of  body  surface.  The  density  of  the  wool 
has  also  a  bearing  on  its  elasticity.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  more  dense  it  is  the  more  elastic  will  it  be ;  that 
is,  the  greater  will  be  the  rebound  when  pressure  is  re- 
moved from  it.  Usually  there  is  a  relation  between  the 
coarseness  or  fineness  of  the  fiber  and  the  number  of  the 
fibers  ;  as  a  rule  the  coarser  the  fiber,  the  smaller  the  num- 
ber of  the  fibers,  and  vice  versa.  Thickness  or  density  in 
the  fibers  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  weight  of  the 
fleece.  The  larger  the  number  of  the  wool  fibers,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  heavier  will  be  the  weight  of  the 
fleece.  It  also  exercises  an  important  influence  in  pro- 
tecting the  animal  from  injury  by  rain  or  sleet  storms. 
The  density  of  the  wool  accounts  in  part  at  least  for  the 
superior  hardihood  of  the  American  Merino.  The  more 
dense  the  wool,  the  more  perfect  is  the  protection  thus 
furnished. 

The  variations  in  the  density  of  wool  are  very  consid- 
erable. Some  of  the  finest  grades  of  Saxony  wool  measure 
i-2,oooth  of  an  inch.  In  growing  wool  the  aim  should  be 
to  secure  as  much  of  density  as  possible  without  hinder- 
ing development  in  other  directions.  Up  to  a  certain 
limit  there  would  seem  to  be  no  antagonism  between 
density  and  length;  nevertheless,  the  fact  remains  that 
the  most  dense  wools  are  of  short  fiber  and  the  least  dense 
wools  are  of  long  fiber. 


78  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

Density  is  a  breed  characteristic  and,  therefore,  is  not 
directly  influenced  by  feeding.  It  is  secured  in  the  pure 
breeds,  and  is  maintained  and  increased,  by  judicious 
breeding.  It  may  be  influenced  materially  by  judicious 
selection,  especially  of  the  males  used  in  service.  Sim- 
ilarly in  grade  sheep  it  is  increased  by  the  use  of  sires 
possessed  of  much  density  of  wool.  But  increase  in 
density  in  wool,  like  increase  in  fineness  of  fiber,  comes 
slowly.  The  form  of  the  sheep  can  be  transformed  much 
more  quickly  than  a  corresponding  change  can  be  made 
in  the  density  of  the  wool. 

Crimp  or  curl  in  wool — Crimp  or  curl  in  wool  means 
the  crimped  or  waved  character  of  the  fibers.  Strictly 
speaking,  crimp  means  the  tendency  of  the  wool  fibers  to 
form  more  or  less  regular  and  minute  but  not  too  close 
lying  folds  in  the  process  of  their  growth,  and  curl  or 
wave  means  the  tendency  in  the  fibers  to  produce  waves 
or  curls — that  is,  spirals — as  they  grow  outward.  The 
latter  tendency  is  the  same  as  the  former  in  kind,  though 
less  in  degree.  It  is  caused  by  more  or  less  regular  alter- 
nations in  the  thickening  of  the  fiber,  first  on  one  side 
and  then  on  the  other.  These  are  more  or  less  spirally 
arranged.  A  curly  fiber  is  a  great  aid  in  spinning  wool, 
since  it  can  be  drawn  finer  and  a  more  compact  and 
rounded  thread  formed.  Crimp  or  curl  is  much  more  pro- 
nounced, and  is  relatively  more  important  in  the  fine 
wools.  Crimp  is  to  some  extent  an  indication  of  strength 
in  wool,  and  gives  it  higher  adaptation  for  certain  proc- 
esses of  manufacture.  In  high-class  Merino  wool  the 
degree  of  crimp  possessed  is  a  matter  of  much  importance. 
In  the  best  bred  fleeces,  the  crimp  is  perceptible  to  the 
naked  eye,  to  the  very  tip  of  the  fibers,  and  is  not  merged 
into  dark  clots  or  indurations. 

The  variations  in  degree  in  crimp  in  wool  are  very 
marked.  In  very  fine  wools,  at  least  30  to  33  waves  or 
crimps  are  found  in  an  inch  in  length.  These  waves 
should  be  perfectly  regular  but  not  so  abrupt  as  to  ap- 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   WOOL  79 

pear  as  folds.  Long  Leicester  wool  has  about  eight  or 
nine  curls  to  an  inch  in  length  of  fiber.  There  is  also  a 
marked  difference  in  the  degree  to  which  the  waved  or 
curled  fibers  combine,  so  as  to  form  locks  or  spirals  which 
hang  like  ringlets.  Some  of  these  are  very  large  and  some 
are  quite  small,  even  in  sheep  of  the  same  breed. 

While  the  immediate  cause  of  crimp  or  curl  is  the 
thickening  of  the  cortical  layer  of  the  fiber,  first  on  one 
side  and  then  on  the  other,  .the  reasons  why  growth  in 
the  fiber  should  proceed  thus  are  not  well  understood.  It 
is  known,  however  that  the  degree  to  which  crimp  or 
curl  may  be  maintained  in  wool  is  influenced  by  selection 
in  breeding.  When  a  fine  wooled  sheep,  as  the  American 
Merino,  is  crossed  by  a  coarse  wooled  sheep,  as  the  Cots- 
wold,  there  is  a  reduction  in  the  waves  or  crimp  found 
in  the  wool  of  the  progeny  and  vice  versa. 

Softness  or  pliancy  in  wool — Softness  or  pliancy  in 
wool,  which  is  the  opposite  of  wiriness  or  stiffness,  means 
its  lack  of  resistance  to  gentle  pressure.  The  measure  of 
the  resistance  to  such  pressure  is  the  measure  of  the  soft- 
ness. Elasticity  is  that  quality  in  wool  which  causes  it 
to  yield  readily  under  pressure  and  then  to  resume  its 
former  position  when  the  pressure  is  removed.  There  is 
no  antagonism  between  softness  and  elasticity.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  are  usually  associated.  Elasticity  is  in- 
dicative of  life  in  wool,  hence  the  more  of  it  that  soft 
wools  have,  the  more  valuable  they  are.  Softness  or 
pliancy  in  wool  can  only  be  measured  by  the  sense  of 
touch,  hence  the  difficulty  of  expressing  in  words  just 
what  it  means.  The  trained  hand  of  a  wool  sorter  meas- 
ures it  in  a  moment,  through  the  sense  of  touch. 

Softness  or  pliancy  in  wool  differs  much  in  the  differ- 
ent breeds  of  sheep,  and  in  different  parts  of  the  same 
fleece.  The  difference  may  be  almost  as  great  in  wool 
from  certain  breeds  as  the  difference  between  feathers 
and  down.  The  softest  wool  is  furnished  by  the  fine  wool 
breeds,  other  things  being  equal.  Among  the  other  in- 


8O  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

fluences  that  affect  softness  in  wool,  apart  from  those  that 
relate  to  breeding,  are  the  plentifulness  and  the  quality  of 
the  yolk,  climate,  lack  of  condition,  old  age,  disease,  ex- 
posure and  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  soil.  Wool 
lacking  yolk  is  lacking  in  softness  and  elasticity,  and 
these  qualities  increase  with  the  increase  in  the  yolk  up  to 
a  certain  limit,  as  long  as  it  retains  the  liquid  form. 

Cool  climates  furnish  softer  wool  than  those  that  are 
hot.  A  lean  condition  affects  softness  adversely  through 
a  lessened  nourishment  of  the  wool  fiber  and  of  the  sup- 
ply of  yolk.  Old  age,  disease,  and  undue  exposure,  simi- 
larly affect  softness  in  wool,  and  for  the  same  reason. 
Soils  affect  this  quality  directly  through  the  constituents 
which  they  furnish,  and  indirectly  through  the  degree  of 
the  nutrition  and  the  succulence  in  the  food  furnished. 
Clay  soils  furnish  wool  of  good  quality,  while  limestone 
soils  produce  wool  that  is  much  more  harsh.  Since  the 
chief  of  the  causes  that  influence  softness  or  pliancy  in 
wool  are  known,  the  methods  of  maintaining  and  increas- 
ing these  are  also  known.  Such  maintenance  and  increase 
will,  of  course,  be  secured  by  shunning,  as  far  as  may  be 
practicable,  the  influences  that  are  adverse  to  softness. 
Careful  regard  should  be  had  to  the  breeding,  as  no  single 
influence  affects  this  quality  more  than  breeding,  under 
normal  conditions. 

Color  in  the  staple  of  wool — Color  in  the  staple  of  wool 
may  affect  all  the  fibers  of  the  fleece  through  the  entire 
length  of  the  same,  or  it  may  affect  only  some  of  them 
thus  on  certain  parts  of  the  body.  The  color,  as  white 
or  black,  illustrates  the  former.  Black  or  gray  patches 
in  the  fleece  in  certain  parts  of  the  body  illustrate  the  lat- 
ter. But  it  may  also  affect  the  shade  which  the  wool 
fibers  will  assume  when  the  fleece  is  parted,  as  the  out- 
come of  condition  linked  with  breed  peculiarities. 

Varieties  in  the  color  of  the  staple,  even  in  the  wools 
that  are  essentially  white  colored,  are  considerable.  When 
the  wool  of  a  fleece  of  this  class  is  parted,  the  color  may 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   WOOL  8l 

be  a  beautiful  white,  a  rich  yellow  or  an  orange  tint,  ac- 
cording to  the  breed  or  grade  of  the  sheep.  In  some  in- 
stances there  is  more  or  less  banding  of  these  colors. 
Banding  means  their  occurrence  in  bars  and  in  alterna- 
tions that  run  across  the  wool  at  right  angles  to  the  length 
of  the  fibers.  Such  banding  is  not  only  allowable,  but  is 
considered  an  indication  that  is  favorable  rather  than 
otherwise.  Fleeces  that  are  entirely  black  or  mottled  are 
directly  or  indirectly  the  outcome  of  breeding. 

Desirable  color  may  be  secured  and  increased  mainly 
through  selection  in  breeding.  If  wool  of  any  of  the 
recognized  and  useful  shades  is  desired,  the  aim  should 
be  to  breed  only  from  sheep  that  carry  fleeces  that  are 
thus  characterized.  If  sheep  possessed  of  wool  of  differ- 
ent colors  are  present  in  the  same  flock,  undesirable  color 
in  the  wool  may  appear  in  some  of  the  progeny,  though 
the  breeding  should  be  otherwise  correct. 

Uniformity  of  fleece  in  wool — Uniformity  in  wool  has 
reference  to  a  similarity  in  the  wool  fibers  as  distributed 
over  the  body.  It  has  reference  to  fineness  of  fiber,  to 
length  of  fiber,  strength  of  fiber  and  to  density  in  the 
same.  Complete  uniformity  in  any  of  the  senses  named 
is  not  attainable ;  nevertheless,  in  all  of  these  respects  it 
is  much  more  nearly  approximated  in  some  breeds  and 
grades  of  sheep  than  in  others,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
individuals  of  the  same  breed. 

When  the  wool  is  nearly  equally  fine  at  the  should- 
ers, ribs,  hips,  rumps  and  thighs,  it  is  said  to  be  uniform 
as  to  fineness.  When  it  is  nearly  equally  long  at  the 
shoulders,  back,  sides,  hips  and  thighs,  it  is  said  to  be 
uniform  as  to  length.  When  it  is  about  equally  strong  on 
all  the  parts  named,  it  is  said  to  be  uniform  in  strength  of 
fiber.  When  it  is  nearly  equally  dense  and  elastic  at  the 
shoulders,  loin  and  rump,  it  is  said  to  be  uniform  in 
density. 

The  variations  in  uniformity  of  fleece  are  more  ac- 
centuated usually  in  breed  than  in  individuals  of  a  breed, 


82  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

but  even  in  the  latter  sense  there  is  considerable  lack  of 
uniformity.  The  unimproved  types  have  much  less  of 
uniformity  in  the  fleece  than  the  improved  types,  and 
in  the  highly  improved  breeds  the  contrast  is  even 
greater.  Wool  is  usually  somewhat  coarser  at  the  rump 
and  hips  than  at  the  sides  and  shoulders.  It  is  usually 
longer  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  body  and  on  the 
shoulders,  sides  and  hips  of  the  same  than  on  other  por- 
tions; as,  for  instance,  the  head,  belly  and  limbs.  The 
difference  in  strength  of  fiber  is  usually  less  than  that  in 
length  of  the  same,  for  the  influences  that  produce  strong 
fiber  on  one  part  of  the  body  also  tend  to  produce  the 
same  on  every  other  part.  Less  of  density  is  often  found 
on  the  thighs  and  underline  than  on  the  other  parts  of 
the  body. 

Uniformity  in  the  fleece  is  maintained  by  continued 
and  careful  selection  in  breeding.  To  secure  it  in  a 
marked  degree,  several  generations  of  careful  up-grad- 
ing are  necessary,  combined  with  a  rigid  selection  with 
reference  to  the  end  sought.  Great  improvement  has  thus 
been  made  in  the  uniformity  of  the  fleece  produced  by  sev- 
eral of  the  improved  breeds,  including  some  of  the  oldest. 

Complete  uniformity  in  the  fleece  is  unattainable.  It 
would  not  be  possible  to  produce  wool  equally  fine,  long, 
strong  or  dense  on  the  extremities  of  the  body  as  on  the 
body  itself.  Nor  would  this  be  altogether  desirable.  But 
on  the  body  itself  the  greatest  uniformity  attainable 
should  be  sought.  The  value  of  the  fleece  will  be  pro- 
portionately enhanced  as  uniformity  in  the  same  is  en- 
hanced. 

Style  or  quality  in  wool — Style  in  wool  has  reference 
to  a  combination  of  good  qualities  and  to  the  absence  of 
defects  in  the  same.  It  includes  such  good  qualities  as 
strength  of  fiber,  length  of  staple,  thickness  or  density, 
crimp  or  curl,  softness  or  pliancy,  color  in  the  staple  and 
uniformity  in  the  fleece.  While  all  of  these  are  impor- 
tant with  reference  to  their  bearing  on  quality,  strength 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF    WOOL  83 

of  fiber  and  softness  or  pliancy  are  specially  so.  Quality 
excludes  such  defects  as  felting  in  the  fleece,  cloudiness 
or  discolorations,  a  stripy  condition,  break  or  joint,  kemp 
or  jar  and  such  influences  as  toppiness  and  clots.  It  also 
excludes  all  such  defects  as  result  from  the  baneful  in- 
fluences of  environment,  such  as  burs,  spines  and  chaff. 

The  variations  in  style  are  as  various  as  the  charac- 
teristics in  breeds  and  grades  of  the  same,  and  yet  all 
classes  of  good  wool  have  much  in  common,  regardless  of 
breed  or  grade.  The  leading  characteristics  of  good  wool 
all  point  in  the  same  direction  and  the  defects  to  be 
shunned  are  the  same. 

Style  or  quality  in  wool  cannot  be  secured  in  the  ab- 
sence of  good  breeding,  the  most  careful  selection  and 
the  most  ample  care  in  the  management  of  the  flock.  In 
the  breeding  of  the  sheep  none  of  the  valuable  qualities  of 
wool  are  to  be  lost  sight  of.  In  the  selection  of  the  same, 
those  that  rank  highest  in  qualities  of  fleece  are  to  be 
retained,  and  those  that  have  defects  are  to  be  rejected. 
The  exclusion  of  the  baneful  influences  of  environment 
are  entirely,  or  at  least  in  a  large  measure,  in  the  hands  of 
the  owner. 

Closure  of  fleece  in  wool — By  closure  of  fleece  in  wool 
is  meant  the  gluing  of  the  wool  fibers  as  a  result  of  the 
abundance  of  the  yolk  at  the  extremities  of  the  wool,  to 
which  dust  and  dirt  adhere  so  as  to  form  a  crust.  This 
crust  gives  the  fleece  a  dirty  appearance,  to  the  extent 
even  of  causing  it  to  assume  a  dark  shade  approaching 
blackness  on  the  surface.  Such  is  the  appearance  of  the 
wool  carried  by  certain  of  the  Merino  types.  One  of 
these,  the  American  Spanish  Black  Top,  has  been  thus 
named  because  of  the  blackness  of  the  fleece  on  its  outer 
surface.  This  crust  is  nearly  impervious  to  rain,  and  is 
a  great  protection  to  the  wool  against  all  kinds  of  dirt 
from  whatsoever  source  it  may  come.  This  property  may, 
however,  under  some  conditions,  become  a  detriment, 


84  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

as  shown  later.  This  peculiarity  of  fleece  is  confined  to  the 
fine  wooled  breeds. 

The  benefits  from  such  closure  have  already  been 
touched  upon.  Sheep  that  are  thus  protected  can  endure 
exposure  to  rain,  and  especially  to  cold  rain,  very  much 
better  than  sheep  not  thus  covered.  This  furnishes  one 
explanation  of  the  superior  hardihood  of  the  Merino 
types.  The  only  avenues  through  which  any  dirt  can 
penetrate  the  wool  are  the  openings  between  the  glued 
masses,  and  these  are  so  minute  as  practically  to  exclude 
dirt.  Should  it  enter  between  the  locks  or  masses,  the 
outward  movement  of  the  yolk  continually  tends  to  eject  it. 

Closure  in  the  fleece  is  largely  the  outcome  of  breeding 
and  selection.  It  is  not  possessed  equally  by  the  Merino 
breeds,  nor  even  by  individuals  of  the  same  breed  or  class. 
It  is  also  much  influenced  by  food.  Sheep  that  are  well 
fed  will  possess  more  closure  of  fleece  than  others  of  sim- 
ilar breeding  when  on  a  spare  diet.  This  follows  from 
the  plentiful  and  suitable  food  supplies  and  a  sufficiency 
of  yolk.  Closure  is  not  to  be  sought  to  the  extent  of 
gluing  all  the  fibers  together  over  any  considerable  area 
of  the  body,  as  this  would  make  a  covering  so  warm  as  to 
be  unendurable  in  the  summer  season.  The  gluing  is 
rather  to  be  confined  to  small  aggregations  of  fibers  in  a 
way  that  does  not  interfere  with  the  escape  of  body  heat 
through  radiation. 

Felting  in  wool — Felty  wool  is  that  in  which  the 
fibers  have  a  tendency  to  felt  together  on  the  sheep's 
back.  In  the  aggravated  form  it  is  known  as  cots  or  cot- 
ted  wool.  The  fibers  so  felt  together  that  by  shearing 
time  portions  of  the  fleece  or  all  of  it  is  so  completely 
felted  or  matted  that  it  can  be  lifted  up  by  a  single  lock 
without  parting  asunder.  It  more  generally  develops  in 
the  winter  season,  when  the  sheep  are  on  a  dry  diet.  Such 
a  fleece  has  a  relatively  low  value  and  should  not  be  sold 
with  other  wool. 

Cotting  is  caused  primarily  by  an  absence  of  yolk.    In 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF   WOOL  85 

some  instances  the  yolk  glands  dry  to  such  an  extent  that 
many  of  the  fibers  have  parted  from  the  body  before  the 
fleece  is  shorn.  Because  of  this,  the  removal  of  the  fleece 
is  not  difficult.  The  secondary  causes  of  cotting  include 
continued  wet  weather,  which  washes  the  yolk  out  of  the 
fleece,  low  condition  or  the  presence  of  certain  forms  of 
disease.  It  is  also  to  some  extent  the  outcome  of  inherit- 
ance. Furthermore,  it  has  been  claimed  that  it  sometimes 
results  from  ammoniacal  exhalations  arising  in  an  un- 
clean stable.  Cotting  is  much  more  frequent  in  the  coarse 
than  in  the  fine  wool  breeds,  as  the  latter  produce  yolk 
more  abundantly  than  the  former,  and  the  more  dense 
fleece  which  they  possess  renders  it  more  impervious  to 
water. 

Since  the  causes  that  produce  cotting  are  known,  the 
means  that  should  be  taken  to  prevent  it  are  evident. 
Sheep  must  be  provided  with  food  that  will  furnish  suffi- 
cient yolk  where  cotting  is  to  be  prevented.  They  must 
be  sufficiently  protected  during  wet  weather.  They  must 
be  maintained  in  a  reasonably  good  condition  as  to  thrift. 
They  must  be  kept  free  from  disease  that  results  in  low 
condition,  and  they  ought  to  be  furnished  with  sheds  free 
from  conditions  that  produce  filth.  Where  the  felting  is 
the  outcome  of  constitutional  inheritance,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  the  animals  thus  affected  should  be  disposed  of  as 
soon  as  this  may  be  practicable. 

Cloudiness  in  wool — Cloudy  wool  means  the  pres- 
ence of  discolorations  in  the  wool  on  various  parts  of  the 
body.  In  some  instances  the  wool  assumes  a  lemon  color 
or  one  that  may  be  designated  as  yellowish,  nankeen  or 
saffron  along  the  back  or  sides  of  the  sheep.  Sometimes 
it  becomes  more  than  ordinarily  white  on  the  neck,  espe- 
cially when  the  sheep  have  been  housed  for  a  time  and 
are  then  not  housed.  In  some  instances  the  wool  ad- 
heres from  the  bottom  upwards  after  the  manner  of  felt, 
though  less  in  degree.  The  wool  is  not  necessarily  in- 
jured in  the  staple,  although  in  some  instances  it  is,  de- 


86  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

pendent  on  the  cause  of  the  cloudiness.  The  first  quality 
of  wool  is  elastic,  lies  loosely,  and  is  white  as  snow.  The 
next  choice  is  a  rich  buff  yellow  or  golden  tint,  and  pos- 
sessed of  uniformity  in  a  marked  degree.  Cloudiness, 
therefore,  detracts  from  the  beauty  and  salableness  of  the 
wool.  Discoloration  from  soil,  as  the  dark  wool  of  the 
adobe  soil  of  California,  or  the  reddish  tint  from  the  red 
clays  of  Tennessee,  is  not  the  same  exactly  as  cloudiness, 
but,  like  cloudiness,  it  detracts  somewhat  from  the  mar- 
ket price  paid. 

Cloudy  wool  may  be  produced  by  any  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing causes:  (i)  Rain  dripping  down  on  sheep  from 
deficient  roofs ;  (2)  irregular  and  uneven  exposure ;  (3) 
deprivation  of  exercise  to  the  extent  of  lowering  the  cir- 
culation ;  and  (4)  inheritance.  Should  the  circulation  be 
unduly  lowered,  the  yolk  will  not  be  present  in  sufficient 
quantity,  nor  will  it  be  sufficiently  liquefied  to  carry  it  to 
the  extremities  of  the  fibers.  In  such  instances  the  fiber 
of  the  wool  is  injured.  When  cloudy  wool  is  the  outcome 
of  inheritance,  the  defect  becomes  constitutional.  The 
fine  wooled  breeds  have  wool  thus  defective  more  fre- 
quently than  the  other  sheep. 

The  measures  that  should  be  taken  to  prevent  cloudi- 
ness in  wool  will  depend  on  the  cause  from  which  it  may 
emanate.  Should  it  result  from  the  dripping  of  the  water, 
mending  or  remending  the  roof  or  removing  the  sheep, 
will  stay  the  evil.  Should  it  be  the  outcome  of  uneven  ex- 
posure, protecting  the  sheep  from  falling  storms  and  al- 
lowing them  to  go  in  and  out  from  the  shelter  of  sheds  at 
will,  should  prove  effective.  Should  the  circulation  be  un- 
duly lowered  through  lack  of  exercise  or  insufficient  food, 
more  exercise  and  better  food  should  remove  the  trouble. 
When  the  defect  is  constitutional,  the  animals  so  affected 
should  be  rejected  for  breeding. 

Stripy  or  watery  wool — The  term  was  formerly  ap- 
plied to  wool  lacking  in  wave  or  crimp  and  that  is  non- 
elastic;  that  is  to  say,  lifeless  when  compressed  by  the 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   WOOL  87 

hand.  The  origin  of  these  terms,  not  so  frequently  used 
during  recent  years  as  formerly,  is  somewhat  obscure. 
The  term  stripy  may  have  arisen  from  the  deadness  re- 
ferred to  in  the  wool  which  characterized  some  portions  only 
of  the  fleece  in  some  instances  in  the  living  animal.  The 
term  watery  may  possibly  have  arisen  from  the  lack  of 
resistance  to  handling,  shown  by  lifeless  wools  which 
are  non-resistant.  Such  wool  is  sometimes  found  on  the 
shoulders  of  inferior  animals  where  only  good  wool  should 
be.  Wool  removed  from  animals  that  may  have  died  from 
disease,  and  especially  disease  that  has  lingered  some 
time,  is  thus  lacking  in  elasticity.  Such  wool  is  dis- 
counted in  the  market,  frequently  to  the  extent  of  several 
cents  a  pound. 

The  causes  that  produce  stripy  and  watery  wool  are, 
inheritance,  lack  of  thrift  and  disease.  Crimp  and  wave 
in  wool  increase  elasticity  in  proportion  as  they  are  pres- 
ent, and  reduce  it  in  proportion  as  they  are  absent.  The 
non-elasticity  of  the  wool  will  be  influenced  adversely  as 
thrift  is  lacking.  The  loss  of  elasticity  in  wool  is  pro- 
portionate to  the  intensity  of  disease  in  the  same  and  to 
the  period  covered  by  the  disease. 

The  remedy  for  non-elasticity,  the  outcome  of  inherit- 
ance, is  the  rejection  for  breeding  of  animals  thus  affected 
or  so  inclined.  When  it  is  the  outcome  of  lack  of  thrift, 
any  treatment  that  conduces  to  thrift  will  so  far  remove 
the  trouble.  When  caused  by  disease,  it  is  very  seldom 
that  any  efficient  remedy  can  be  applied.  It  is  not  to  be 
understood  that  wool  thus  far  injured  can  be  restored  to 
a  normal  condition,  but  that  the  application  of  the  reme- 
dies will  prevent  the  continuance  of  the  production  of 
such  wool.  Non-elastic  wool  is  more  difficult  to  card  and 
comb  than  other  wool. 

Break  or  joint  in  wool — Break  or  joint  in  wool  indi- 
cates that  when  it  is  stretched  or  distended  it  will  part 
asunder  at  some  point  of  its  length.  The  break  will,  of 
course,  occur  where  the  fiber  is  weakest.  It  makes  wool 


88  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

useless  for  any  combing  purpose  and  very  greatly  im- 
pairs its  value  for  any  use.  The  break  may  occur  along 
the  length  of  the  fiber  according  to  the  cause  that  may 
have  produced  it,  and  the  time  when  that  cause  was 
operative. 

The  immediate  cause  of  break  or  joint  is  arrested 
nutrition  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period.  When  the  glands 
that  nourish  the  wool  fibers  are  not  sufficiently  fed,  they 
are  unable  to  furnish  the  materials  for  sufficient  growth 
in  the  wool ;  no  sooner  does  this  happen  than  the  growth 
made  by  the  fibers  at  such  a  time  is  less  than  normal.  The 
reduction  will  relate  both  to  the  size  and  strength  of  the 
fiber,  and  the  continuance  of  such  enfeebled  growth  will 
be  exactly  proportioned  to  the  continuance  of  the  period 
of  deficient  sustenance.  The  weakess  of  the  fiber  will  also 
be  proportioned  to  the  degree  to  which  sustenance  was 
wanting.  The  primary  cause  is,  of  course,  the  lack  of 
food  or  the  lack  of  proper  nutrition  in  the  food,  but  other 
causes  may  have  a  qualifying  influence.  These  include 
undue  exposure,  alkaline  pastures  and  various  forms  of 
disease  which  for  a  time  have  reduced  condition  in  the 
sheep. 

The  cause  of  break  or  joint  in  wool  being  known,  the 
way  to  prevent  it  is  also  known.  Ample  and  suitable 
nutrition  will  always  prevent  it  in  healthy  sheep.  When 
sheep  can  be  kept  healthy  this  weakness  in  wool  cannot 
occur.  There  may,  of  course,  be  conditions  under  which 
it  is  impossible  to  furnish  the  requisite  nutrition,  as  dur- 
ing prolonged  drought  in  range  areas.  There  may  also 
be  occasions  when  it  is  not  possible  to  furnish  the  requi- 
site shelter.  Usually,  however,  on  the  arable  farm  suffi- 
cient foresight  may  be  used  to  safeguard  the  flock  from 
injury  by  the  causes  named,  and  therefore  to  prevent  the 
occurrence  of  break  or  joint  in  wool. 

Kemp  or  jar  in  wool — Kemp  or  jar  in  wool,  some- 
times called  gare,  is  simply  hair.  Though  these  hairs 
occur  singly,  they  may  be  distributed  over  the  body.  They 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   WOOL  89 

are  chiefly  found  on  rams,  and  most  commonly  occur  on 
the  face,  neck,  forearm,  and  scrotum.  When  thus  found, 
they  are  very  liable  to  be  present  to  some  extent  else- 
where. In  rams  of  the  Merino  types  they  sometimes 
occur  on  the  exposed  surface  of  the  neck  folds,  and  less 
frequently  on  the  folds  at  the  sides  and  hips.  In  Cots- 
wold  sheep  and  Angora  goats  they  are  of  commonest 
occurrence  at  the  hips.  The  presence  of  these  hairs  in 
the  wool  is  highly  objectionable,  since  in  the  combs  and 
cards  they  are  equally  unmanageable.  They  will  not 
blend  with  the  wool  fibers,  and  they  will  not  take  dye 
so  readily  as  wool.  Their  presence  has  been  known  to 
reduce  the  value  of  the  fleece  by  fully  50  per  cent.  Hairs 
short  and  curled  are  the  most  objectionable. 

The  cause  of  kemp  or  jar  is  not  certainly  understood. 
It  is  most  liable  to  occur  in  males,  and  more  especially 
among  the  more  vigorous  of  these;  hence  there  would 
seem  to  be  some  relation  between  occurrence  of  these 
hairs  and  constitutional  vigor. 

Some  authorities  look  upon  the  presence  of  these 
hairs  as  the  outcome  of  spontaneous  variation,  but  since 
some  breeds  produce  them  more  frequently  than  others, 
it  would  seem  reasonable  to  look  upon  them  as  being  in 
some  way  the  outcome  of  atavic  transmission.  The  wild, 
coarse  and  frizzly  character  of  the  hairs  is  akin  to  these 
properties  found  in  the  wool  of  some  at  least  of  the  prim- 
itive breeds. 

Until  the  cause  of  kemp  or  jar  in  wool  is  definitely  un- 
derstood, it  may  not  be  possible  to  entirely  prevent  it. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  rams  or  other  sheep  that  are 
thus  affected  should  not  be  kept  for  breeding.  Such 
selection,  long  continued,  would  probably  eliminate  the 
evil. 

Toppiness,  broad  toppiness,  black  tops  and  clots  in 
wool — Toppiness  in  wool  means  unevenness  and  lack  of 
smoothness  in  the  closure  of  the  fleece,  resulting  from  in- 
equality in  the  length  of  the  fibers.  Such  wool  is,  of 


90  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

course,  not  equal  in  value  with  wool  possessed  of  even 
length  of  fiber.  Broad  toppiness,  means  the  division  of 
the  wool  into  broad  masses  or  tops,  caused  by  the  inter- 
lacing of  the  fibers,  which  are  to  some  extent  split  from 
the  top  downwards.  Such  a  condition  is  objectionable, 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  manufacturer. 

Black  top  means  the  gluing  together  of  the  wool 
fibers  over  much  of  the  body  so  as  to  render  it  almost 
impervious  to  rain.  It  extends  the  whole  length  of  the 
fleece,  and  is  densest  along  the  back,  but  occurs  more  or 
less  on  the  sides.  It  hinders  the  extension  of  the  crimp 
to  the  extremities  of  the  fibers,  such  as  is  found  in  a  per- 
fect fleece.  If  the  sheep  are  much  confined  in  winter  it 
becomes  separated  into  masses  or  lumps.  Each  of  these, 
tipping  more  or  less  of  the  fibers,  becomes  exceedingly 
hard,  and,  in  proportion,  they  impair  the  value  of  wool. 
The  worst  form  of  clot  is  gray  shoulder  clot,  which  is 
somewhat  akin  to  blacktop,  but  exceeds  it  in  degree.  It 
occurs  at  the  withers  and  frequently  extends  half  way 
down  the  shoulders  and  more  or  less  along  the  backbone. 
In  a  short-fibered  fleece,  the  locks  will  be  glued  together 
in  some  instances  for  half  their  length,  and  will  be  about 
as  hard  as  stone.  The  influence  of  all  these  conditions, 
with  reference  to  its  bearing  on  the  manufacture  of  the 
wool,  will  be  readily  perceived.  These  defects  are  chiefly 
if  not  entirely  confined  to  the  Merino  types  of  sheep. 

These  conditions  are  all  traceable  more  or  less  to 
inheritance,  but  they  are  also  influenced  by  food  and 
management,  though  not  equally  so.  Food  and  manage- 
ment may  not  be  able  to  influence  in  any  marked  degree 
the  unevenness  in  the  fibers  that  leads  to  toppiness,  but 
it  may  influence  in  a  marked  degree  gray  shoulder  clot, 
if  caused  by  a  feeble  circulation  and  if  aggravated  by 
rain  and  washing  out  the  softer  parts  of  the  yolk  and 
allowing  the  residuum  to  gum  the  locks  together. 

In  so  far  as  these  defects  are  the  outcome  of  inherit- 
ance, they  can  largely  be  prevented  by  selection.  In  so 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   WOOL  9! 

far  as  they  are  the  outcome  of  deficient  management,  it  is 
almost  needless  to  say  that  correct  management  will  in 
time  lessen  the  tendency  to  such  defects,  if  it  does  not 
entirely  remove  it. 

Influences  from  environment  that  are  harmful — The 
influences  from  environment  that  are  harmful  in  wool  are 
various.  They  are  such  as  relate  to  soils  which  tend  to 
color  the  wool,  to  imperfect  protection,  as  the  roofs  of 
sheds  that  leak,  and  the  adherence  of  foreign  substances 
to  the  wool,  such  as  burs,  spines  and  chaff.  The  hurtful- 
ness  from  soils  it  is  not  possible  to  remedy  in  some  in- 
stances. Those  from  leaking  roofs  may  easily  be  pre- 
vented by  simply  stopping  the  leaks.  Those  from  for- 
eign substances  are  taken  into  the  wool  while  the  sheep 
are  grazing  or  taking  fodder  in  winter,  and  are  therefore 
preventable. 

Burs  are  of  various  kinds,  as  the  burdock,  the  cockle- 
bur,  the  beggar  tick  and  the  sand  bur.  When  these  are 
allowed  to  grow  in  the  pastures,  the  sheep  when  grazing 
come  in  touch  with  them  and  they  become  entangled  in 
the  wool,  to  the  extent  in  some  instances  of  covering  the 
whole  fleece.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  burdock.  The 
remedy  is  to  prevent  these  from  maturing  their  seeds ; 
that  is,  from  forming  mature  burs  in  which  the  seed  is 
inclosed.  For  the  best  methods  of  doing  this,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  "Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate  Them,"  by 
the  author. 

Needle  grass  is  peculiar  to  range  pastures,  especially 
to  those  ranges  that  lie  west  from  the  Rocky  mountains. 
At  one  time  it  infested  nearly  all  the  land  in  the  West 
known  as  prairie  land.  This  grass  grows  up  tall  amid  the 
prairie  grasses  early  in  the  season  and  matures  spines, 
which  in  shape  somewhat  resemble  needles.  When  the 
sheep  graze  among  them  as  they  approach  maturity  in 
June  or  July,  they  fall  into  the  wool,  and  through  motion 
in  the  same  while  the  sheep  are  walking,  they  work  down 
into  the  flesh.  Lambs  are  the  greater  sufferers  from  their 


92  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

presence,  for  the  reason  that  they  have  longer  wool  at 
that  season  than  the  old  sheep.  The  remedy  consists  of 
keeping  the  flock,  if  possible,  on  other  pastures  until  the 
needles  fall  to  the  ground.  If  the  grass  that  produces 
them  was  cut  sufficiently  early  they  would  not  mature 
any  seed,  but  on  the  range  this  would  not  be  practicable. 
Should  the  wool  be  infested  with  the  needles,  removing 
the  fleece  will  prevent  further  harm.  This  grass  and 
nearly  all  kinds  of  plants  that  thus  injure  wool  are  easily 
destroyed  by  careful  cultivation. 

Injury  from  chaff  and  broken  pieces  of  straw  comes 
from  sheep  feeding  from  improperly  constructed  racks, 
and  at  the  sides  of  unfenced  stacks.  When  thus  feeding, 
chaff,  short  pieces  of  straw  and  dust  fall  down  upon  the 
backs  of  the  sheep  and  work  their  way  into  the  wool. 
The  wool  on  the  top  of  the  neck  and  shoulders  is  natu- 
rally the  most  injured  by  these  substances.  That  of  the 
long  wooled  breeds  takes  the  greatest  harm,  since  it  is 
the  most  open,  and  that  of  the  fine  wooled  breeds  the 
least,  since  it  is  the  most  dense.  The  remedy  is  plain.  It 
is  to  provide  properly  constructed  racks  and  to  prevent 
sheep  from  feeding  at  stacks  of  any  kind. 

Sheep  sometimes  lose  more  or  less  of  their  wool, 
especially  in  the  winter  season.  This  may  result  from 
undue  exposure,  as  when  the  wool  drops  off  the  outer 
portions  of  the  wrinkles  in  Merinos  which  have  been 
chilled.  It  may  result  from  housing  overwarm,  which 
produces  a  fevered  condition  of  the  system,  sometimes 
aggravated  by  constipation  resulting  from  the  food  fed. 
It  may  also  result  from  certain  forms  of  disease,  which 
also  tend  to  produce  the  fevered  condition  referred  to.  In 
some  instances  sheep  will  pull  out  more  or  less  of  the 
wool  from  the  bodies  of  the  others.  Such  a  condition 
usually  evidences  something  lacking  in  the  food.  Should 
the  habit  become  confirmed,  which  it  does  in  rare  in- 
stances, those  addicted  to  it  should  be  sent  to  the  block. 


CHAPTER  VI 
LAMBS  FROM  BIRTH   UNTIL  WEANED 

In  Chapter  VI  the  discussion  dwells  upon  the  follow- 
ing: (i)The  season  when  lambs  should  come;  (2)  The 
care  of  the  dams  when  nearing  parturition ;  (3)  Special 
care  at  the  lambing  season ;  (4)  Giving  aid  to  the  dams 
in  labor;  (5)  Giving  aid  to  the  young  lambs  ;  (6)  Reviving 
lambs  that  may  have  been  chilled;  (7)  Managing  ewes 
that  do  not  own  their  lambs ;  (8)  Rearing  lambs  by  hand  ; 
(9)  Supplemental  food  for  lambs;  (10)  Food  suitable  for 
young  lambs;  (n)  The  lamb  creep ;  (12)  Weaning  lambs, 
and  how  it  is  done;  (13)  The  proper  food  for  lambs  when 
weaned;  (14)  Castrating  lambs;  (15)  Docking  lambs; 
(16)  The  registration  of  pure  bred  lambs;  and  (17)  Mis- 
cellaneous considerations. 

When  lambs  should  come — The  best  season  for  lambs 
to  come  is  determined  by  such  influences  as  the  market 
for  which  they  are  grown,  the  shelter  that  has  been  pro- 
vided, and  to  some  extent  by  the  breeding  habit  in  the 
sheep.  Of  these  influences  the  first  is  by  far  the  most 
important,  as,  if  sheep,  and  more  particularly  lambs,  are 
not  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  market  for  which 
they  have  been  grown,  they  soon  become  a  drug  in  the 
hands  of  the  owner.  To  have  young  lambs  at  a  season 
when  the  weather  is  cold  in  the  absence  of  provision  to 
properly  protect  them  would  be  to  court  disaster  to  the 
lamb  crop.  Some  breeds  of  sheep,  not  many,  however, 
drop  their  lambs  in  the  autumn,  and  others  in  the  spring. 
The  attempt  to  modify  such  habit,  when  this  may  be  de- 
sired, cannot  be  quickly  done  (see  p.  243).  Lambs  in- 
tended for  the  winter  market,  usually  spoken  of  as  hot- 
house or  milk  lambs,  should  come  after  the  hot  weather 
is  over  in  summer  and  before  lambs  come  for  the  spring 
market.  They  should  be  sold,  as  a  rule,  after  the  winter 


94  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

holiday  season  and  before  the  Easter  season.  If  ready 
too  early,  they  would  reach  the  market  in  competition 
with  the  vast  supply  of  poultry  that  fill  the  market  just 
prior  to  the  holiday  season.  If  not  ready  early  enough, 
they  come  in  competition  with  early  spring  lambs,  and 
at  a  lower  price. 

Lambs  for  the  spring  market  are  supposed  to  be 
ready  for  the  shambles  not  later  than  the  Easter  season. 
The  milk  lambs  usually  supply  the  needs  of  the  market 
until  the  approach  of  the  Easter  season.  The  winter 
lambs,  which  come  chiefly  in  the  months  of  February  and 
March,  will  take  the  market  at  an  early  age  when  plump 
and  fat.  Though  they  do  not  sell  for  prices  so  high  as 
milk  lambs,  they  will  at  the  age  of  six  to  ten  weeks  sell 
for  prices  as  high  if  not  higher  than  they  will  bring  sev- 
eral months  later.  These  good  prices  for  really  good 
lambs  may,  and  frequently  do,  continue  for  several  weeks 
after  the  Christmas  season,  but  the  price  paid  after  that 
season  is  less  relatively  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of 
the  lambs.  When  prices  can  be  obtained  for  such  lambs 
fully  equal  to  those  obtained  for  them  several  months 
later,  there  are  no  good  reasons  for  keeping  them  thus 
long  before  selling  them  for  meat. 

When  lambs  are  to  be  sold  for  breeding  uses,  they 
should  come  early  rather  than  late.  The  aim  should  be  to 
have  them  come  as  early  as  winter  lambs  intended  for 
the  Easter  market,  but  they  should  not  be  pushed  so 
rapidly  as  the  latter  when  young.  Such  lambs  should 
come  thus  early  for  the  reason,  first,  that  those  who  pur- 
chase give  the  preference  to  large  lambs  when  making 
their  selections ;  and,  second,  that  they  usually  grow  to  a 
larger  size.  That  the  result  last  mentioned  follows  may 
be  disputed,  but  there  would  seem  to  be  some  truth  in  the 
belief.  And  it  seems  to  be  more  in  evidence  in  the  case 
of  Merinos  than  of  some  other  breeds.  It  may  rest  upon 
the  advantage  which  a  strong  and  well-developed  animal 
has  on  entering  the  winter  over  one  not  so  well  developed. 


LAMBS  FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL   WEANED  95 

It  is  more  important  relatively  that  male  lambs  come 
early  when  they  are  to  be  used  in  service,  as  in  such  in- 
stances the  added  maturity  which  they  possess  will  bet- 
ter fit  them  for  such  a  use. 

Lambs  to  be  finished  in  the  autumn  and  before  the  clos- 
ing in  of  winter  should  come  at  a  time  intermediate  be- 
tween winter  lambs  to  be  sold  early  and  spring  lambs  for 
breeding  the  following  winter.  The  aim  should  be  to 
have  them  come  just  before  the  season  for  turning  out  to 
graze.  The  relative  loss  in  the  lambs  will  probably  be 
less  when  they  come  at  such  a  time  than  if  the  lambing 
season  was  deferred  until  the  coming  of  the  earliest  grass. 
The  lambs  thus  safely  started  in  the  sheds  will  grow 
rapidly  when  the  dams  are  turned  out  on  the  succulent 
grazing.  If  both  ewes  and  lambs  are  supplied  with  suit- 
able grazing,  the  latter  will  reach  such  weights  as  the 
market  demands  before  the  arrival  of  winter. 

Lambs  to  be  finished  in  the  winter  following  their 
birth  should  not  come  until  the  grass  has  made  sufficient 
growth  to  sustain  both  ewes  and  lambs  in  good  form. 
Should  they  come  earlier  they  will  be  larger  than  the 
market  calls  for  if  kept  all  the  time  on  good  grazing. 
The  market  prefers  lambs  ranging  somewhere  between 
80  and  loo  pounds.  Some  years  ago  lambs  much  heavier 
were  most  in  favor,  but  it  is  not  thus  now.  The  larger 
the  normal  size  of  the  breed  the  later  may  the  lambs 
come,  lest  they  should  reach  weights  too  heavy  before 
the  season  arrives  for  finishing  them. 

Dams  when  nearing  parturition — When  lambs  are 
dropped  on  the  pastures  it  is  not  specially  necessary  to 
know  to  a  day  just  when  they  will  be  born,  but  it  is 
important  to  know  that  lambs  may  be  expected  after  a 
certain  date,  and  that  no  more  need  be  looked  for  be- 
yond another  fixed  date.  These,  dates  may,  of  course,  be 
readily  known  by  noting  when  the  male  was  admitted  to 
the  flock  at  the  mating  season  and  when  he  was  removed. 
This  knowledge  makes  it  possible  to  give  that  close  atten- 


96  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

tion  to  the  flock  which  is  necessary  at  such  a  time.  When 
lambs  are  born  in  the  sheds  it  is  important  to  know  when 
each  individual  ewe  may  be  expected  to  bring  forth  her 
young,  and  the  more  valuable  the  dams  are  the  more  im- 
portant is  such  information  relatively.  The  profits  from 
the  flock  are  determined  largely  by  the  success  that  at- 
tends the  effort  to  save  the  lambs. 

It  is  possible,  of  course,  to  know  within  a  day  or  two 
the  time  when  each  individual  ewe  may  be  expected  to 
bring  forth  her  young.  This  can  be  known  by  noting  the 
time  of  the  service  and  keeping  a  record  of  the  same.  The 
period  of  gestation  in  ewes  is  147  days.  It  seldom  varies 
more  than  a  day  or  two,  but  it  may  occur  not  less  than 
a  week  before  or  after  the  period  named.  Such  a  record 
is  valuable  to  any  shepherd,  but  it  is  particularly  valua- 
ble in  the  case  of  pedigreed  sheep. 

When  the  sheep  are  yet  in  the  sheds,  the  dams  that 
are  about  to  bring  forth  their  young  should  be  separated 
from  the  flock  by  taking  them  to  the  lambing  pen,  or  by 
surrounding  them  with  a  movable  inclosure  made  of  posts 
and  slats  within  which  they  are  confined  until  the  lambs 
are  well  on  their  feet.  These  portable  pens  should  be 
light  and  the  slats  on  the  sides  so  close  near  the  bottom 
as  not  to  admit  of  the  young  lambs  getting  through  be- 
tween them,  and  thus  wandering  away  from  the  ewe. 
Pieces,  2x2  inches  and  3  to  4  feet  long,  will  answer  for 
the  posts,  and  strips  3  to  4  feet  long  and  4  to  6  inches  wide 
for  the  sides.  Such  lumber,  or  even  a  little  less  in  the 
thickness,  will  furnish  them  strong  enough.  The  dimen- 
sions of  these  inclosures  should  to  some  extent  be  de- 
termined by  the  size  of  the  sheep. 

The  advantage  claimed  for  these  portable  pens  over 
the  stationary  pen  is  that  when  the  dams  are  confined  in 
the  former,  they  are  still  left  in  quarters  to  which  they  are 
accustomed  and  in  sight  of  the  other  sheep ;  hence  they 
worry  less  than  if  removed  to  a  stationary  lambing  pen. 
This,  however,  may  be  obviated  in  a  measure  by  thus 


LAMBS  FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL   WEANED  97 

confining  more  than  one  ewe  at  a  time.  In  the  stationary 
pen,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  divisions,  portable  or 
otherwise,  in  which  to  keep  the  ewes  separate  from  one 
another. 

When  it  is  not  known  just  when  the  ewes  are  to  yean, 
it  may  be  well  to  examine  the  flock  occasionally,  and  to 
separate  from  the  others  the  dams  that  are  soon  to  yean. 
The  most  important  indication  of  the  near  approach  of 
the  time  of  yeaning  is  the  condition  of  the  udder.  It,  of 
course,  enlarges  and  fills  out,  as  a  rule,  before  the  lambs 
are  produced,  and  the  teats  distend.  If  ewes  are  cast  or 
thrown  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  udder,  the 
handling  should  be  of  the  gentlest  character.  Such  ex- 
amination is  seldom  necessary  at  intervals  less  than  a 
week  apart.  The  first  indication  of  actual  yeaning  is  a 
restless  movement  and  a  distracted  look.  Then  follow 
indications  too  apparent  to  be  mistaken. 

Special  care  at  the  lambing  season — The  lambing 
season  is  the  flockmaster's  harvest.  If  the  losses  at  such 
a  time  are  frequent,  the  profits  will  be  cut  down  accord- 
ingly. To  keep  the  percentage  of  loss  down  to  a  mini- 
mum at  such  a  season  should  be  the  honest,  earnest  en- 
deavor of  every  shepherd.  But  even  with  the  best  of 
care,  some  losses  may  usually  be  looked  for  in  a  large 
flock.  Many  of  the  ewes  will  bring  forth  their  young  in 
the  night.  The  presence  of  the  shepherd  at  such  a  time 
may  result  in  saving  the  life  of  a  lamb  and  even  of  a  ewe ; 
hence  when  the  sheep  are  yet  in  the  sheds,  the  shepherd 
should  not  fail  to  visit  the  flock  at  midnight,  and  again 
in  the  very  early  morning.  The  more  inclement  the 
weather  the  greater  is  the  necessity  for  such  nocturnal 
vigils.  Where  the  flock  is  large  it  may  be  necessary 
sometimes  for  the  shepherd  to  remain  much  of  the  night 
with  the  flock.  Such  vigils  may  be  trying,  but  they  are  a 
part  of  the  true  shepherd's  work,  and  they  will  be  un- 
grudgingly given  by  a  shepherd  who  has  his  work  suffi- 
ciently at  heart.  At  such  times  he  should  not  fail  to  sus- 


98  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

tain  his  own  strength  by  taking  suitable  food  and  drink. 

It  would  not  be  practicable  to  spend  time  at  night 
with  a  flock  in  the  field,  nor  is  it  necessary,  the  weather 
is  so  much  warmer  at  such  a  time.  But  the  flock  should 
be  visited  late  in  the  evening  and  at  early  dawn  in  the 
morning.  When  the  slightest  hazard  is  present  that 
storms  may  happen  in  the  night,  the  sheep  should  with- 
out fail  be  brought  home  to  the  shed  at  nightfall. 

Extra  attention  at  such  a  time  is  an  absolute  neces- 
sity, and  the  shepherd  should  not  even  consider  it  irk- 
some, for  it  is  a  legitimate  part  of  his  work.  Trouble  may 
arise  in  his  absence  in  a  score  of  different  ways.  The 
dams  in  labor  may  not  be  able  to  bring  forth  without  help. 
Some  lambs  may  be  so  weak  as  to  be  unable  to  get  on 
their  feet  without  being  helped  to  the  milk  of  the  dam, 
and  others,  as  in  the  case  of  twins,  may  wander  away 
from  the  dam  and  perish.  For  these  and  other  reasons 
too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  flock  during 
the  lambing  season. 

Assisting  ewes  in  labor — When  all  goes  well  during 
parturition,  it  is  better  to  let  nature  have  her  way  and  to 
refrain  from  assisting  in  the  delivery  of  the  lambs.  But 
should  any  hindrance  arise  that  tends  to  delay  delivery 
too  long,  or  should  a  false  presentation  occur,  assistance 
given  may  save  the  life  of  the  lamb  and  in  some  instances 
that  of  the  ewe. 

Trouble  may  arise  from  various  causes.  Prominent 
among  these  are  lambs  with  the  head  abnormally  large,  a 
false  presentation  and  the  retention  of  lambs  that  are 
dead.  A  weak  condition  of  the  ewes  at  the  time  of  lamb- 
ing always  tends  to  aggravate  such  troubles.  Such  a 
condition  may  of  itself  tend  so  to  prolong  the  time  occu- 
pied in  labor  as  to  hazard  the  life  of  the  progeny,  if  not 
of  the  dam,  unless  aid  is  given  with  due  discretion. 

When  a  lamb  with  a  head  abnormally  large  comes 
to  the  birth  and  yet  is  not  born  within  a  reasonable  time, 
aid  should  be  given  to  the  ewe  in  labor.  This  may  be 


LAMBS   FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL   WEANED  99 

done  by  placing  the  hand  flatwise  on  the  skin  of  the 
vulva  and  pressing  it  back  over  the  head  of  the  lamb. 
When  the  head  is  thus  freed,  the  front  legs  should  be 
drawn  forth,  one  at  a  time,  until  freed.  Then  by  taking 
both  legs  in  one  hand  and  pulling  in  a  somewhat  circular 
direction  toward  the  rear  of  the  ewe's  udder  the  delivery 
will  speedily  be  completed.  But  the  attendant  should 
only  attempt  to  render  aid  thus  at  such  times  as  the  ewe 
herself  is  straining;  that  is,  trying  to  deliver  her  progeny. 

False  or  unnatural  presentations  may  occur  in  vari- 
ous forms,  but  two  of  these  that  are  most  common  are, 
first,  the  head  lying  back  against  the  side;  and,  second, 
the  rear  end  of  the  lamb  coming  first,  the  legs  at  the 
same  time  being  doubled  back.  In  the  former  instances 
the  lamb  should  be  pushed  back  into  the  womb  and  there 
so  straightened  that  it  will  come  in  the  natural  way.  In 
the  latter  instances  it  is  also  pushed  back  and  the  legs 
put  in  position.  It  then  comes  from  the  dam  stern  end 
first. 

When  a  pregnant  ewe  separates  herself  from  the 
other  members  of  the  flock  and  appears  dull  and  stupid, 
it  will  usually  be  found  that  she  has  recently  aborted  or 
that  she  is  carrying  a  dead  lamb.  In  the  latter  instance 
relief  must  be  prompt  if  the  life  of  the  ewe  is  to  be  saved, 
as  in  such  instances  blood  poisoning  quickly  follows, 
which  will  certainly  prove  fatal.  The  ewe  is  best  in  posi- 
tion, when  relieved  of  her  lambs,  when  resting  on  her 
back  or  buttock,  but  it  will  be  well  if  the  position  is  occa- 
sionally changed.  The  person  who  removes  the  lamb 
should  trim  his  nails  short  and  anoint  his  hands  with 
some  lubricant  which  is  also  antiseptic,  and  the  hands 
should  be  entirely  free  from  wounds  of  any  kind.  Various 
devices  are  practiced  to  aid  the  operator,  as,  for  instance, 
forcing  the  finger  through  the  soft  part  of  the  under  jaw 
of  the  lamb  and  slipping  a  piece  of  string  sufficiently 
strong  in  the  form  of  a  noose  over  the  under  jaw  of  the 
same.  The  effort  to  take  away  the  dead  lamb  should 


IOO  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

only  be  made  in  unison  with  the  efforts  of  the  ewe  to  be 
relieved  of  it.  The  aim  should  be  to  remove  the  placenta 
at  the  same  time.  After  the  lambs  have  been  removed 
the  womb  should  be  treated  with  tepid  solutions  of  car- 
bolic injections  twice  a  day  for  a  few  days.  If  much  time 
is  covered  in  relieving  a  ewe  of  her  dead  lamb  or  lambs, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  administer  some  stimulant  to  pre- 
vent her  from  succumbing. 

Giving  aid  to  young  lambs — When  the  lambs  come 
strong  and  vigorous  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  give  them 
help  in  any  way.  As  soon  as  they  ought  to  take  food 
from  the  dam  they  will  do  so,  as  a  rule,  unless  in  in- 
stances when  the  ewes  will  not  own  them.  Sometimes 
even  strong  lambs  will  not  nurse  for  a  time,  for  the  rea- 
son that  they  are  not  hungry,  but  usually  they  will  seek 
to  nurse  as  soon  as  they  are  well  on  their  feet.  When 
they  come  into  the  world  in  a  cold  atmosphere,  it  may  be 
wise  to  try  and  get  them  to  take  some  of  the  milk  of  the 
dam  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  born,  to  fortify 
them  against  the  cold.  Wrapping  them  in  a  warm 
blanket  may  also  prove  very  helpful.  In  some  instances 
it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  thin  mucus  mem- 
brane, that  covers  the  mouth  of  the  lamb  to  obviate  the 
danger  of  suffocation  ;  but  usually  the  ewe,  when  strong, 
will  remove  this  when  caring  for  the  lamb. 

Newly  born  and  young  lambs  may  require  aid  from 
the  shepherd  under  the  following  conditions:  (i)  When 
they  are  weak  and  unable  of  themselves  to  take  nourish- 
ment ;  (2)  when  the  dam  gives  attention  chiefly  to  one 
lamb  when  twins  are  born ;  (3)  when  free  passage  of  the 
bowels  is  not  secured  within  a  reasonable  time  of  the 
birth  of  the  lamb ;  (4)  when  lambs  become  chilled. 

When  lambs  are  too  weak  in  themselves  to  take 
nourishment,  it  should  be  given  to  them  within  a  rea- 
sonable time  after  they  are  born,  usually  within,  say,  half 
an  hour  of  birth.  When  the  dam  has  milk  for  the  lamb, 
it  should  be  assisted  in  taking  the  same  directly  from  the 


LAMBS   FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL    WEANED! 


dam.  When  only  one  person  is  present,  the  task  may 
not  be  an  easy  one,  especially  if  the  lamb  is  unable  to 
stand.  In  such  instances  it  renders  the  work  easier  if 
the  ewe  is  turned  up  ;  that  is,  placed  upon  her  buttock,  her 
back  being  supported  against  the  breast  of  the  shepherd. 
His  hands  are  then  sufficiently  free  to  enable  him  to  aid 
the  lamb  in  nursing.  When  two  persons  are  present  the 
work  is  more  easily  and  usually  more  effectively  accom- 
plished. The  lamb  may  also  be  fed  by  drawing  some  milk 
from  the  ewe  and  feeding  the  same  to  the  lamb  with  a 
spoon.  When  the  atmosphere  is  cold,  it  will  aid  in  giving 
the  milk  warm  if  hot  water  has  been  in  the  cup  just 
before  the  milk  is  withdrawn  from  the  ewe.  The  lamb's 
mouth  is  kept  open  sufficiently  by  putting  a  finger  into 
it,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  feed  the  milk  too  fast, 
lest  the  lamb  should  strangle.  If  no  milk  can  be  obtained 
from  the  ewe,  which  sometimes  happens,  resort  must  be 
had  to  cow's  milk.  When  such  milk  is  fed,  one-third  of 
its  bulk  in  water  should  be  added  and  also  a  little  sugar, 
to  make  it  more  nearly  resemble  the  milk  of  the  ewe  in 
its  constituents.  Milk  should  be  thus  given  in  very  small 
quantities,  and  frequently,  rather  than  in  large  amounts 
and  at  long  intervals. 

When  twin  lambs  are  born  the  attentions  of  the  ewe 
are  sometimes  centered  on  the  care  of  one  lamb  to  the 
neglect  of  the  other.  In  some  instances  one  lamb  will 
be  much  stronger  than  the  other,  and  when  milk  is  not 
plentiful  will  get  more  than  its  rightful  share.  Timely 
aid  and  timely  and  sufficient  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
shepherd  may  not  only  prevent  many  a  ewe  from  disown- 
ing her  lamb,  but  may  also  save  the  life  of  lambs  that 
would  otherwise  perish.  It  may  be  necessary  thus  to  aid 
such  lambs  for  several  days,  or  until  they  are  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves. 

If,  within  a  few  hours  of  birth,  a  lamb  should  appear 
dumpish  and  drowsy,  it  will  usually  be  found  that  this 
condition  is  caused  by  constipation.  If  an  injection  is 


MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 


promptly  administered,  usually  it  will  bring  relief.  A 
small  dose  of  castor  oil  may  bring  about  the  same  result. 
An  injection  may  be  prepared  by  making  a  suds  of  warm 
water  and  any  kind  of  pure  soap;  castile  soap  answers 
well  and  pure  soft  water  makes  suds,  of  course,  more 
readily  than  hard  water.  From  half  a  teaspoonful  to  a 
teaspoonful  will  usually  suffice  for  a  dose,  depending  on 
the  size  and  strength  of  the  lamb.  In  obstinate  instances 
of  constipation  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  the  injection 
and  also  the  physic  before  relief  comes.  A  small  syringe 
is  used  in  administering  the  injection. 

In  some  instances  the  excrement  from  lambs  is  so 
sticky  in  character  that  it  will  adhere  to  the  parts  under 
and  around  the  tail  head,  in  some  cases  to  the  extent  of 
closing  the  passage  from  the  rectum.  Such  a  condition 
calls  for  prompt  removal  of  the  same.  It  is  caused  by 
imperfect  digestion,  tracing  usually  to  some  peculiarity 
of  the  milk  of  the  dam  arising  from  the  character  of  the 
rations  fed.  Milk  from  ewes  that  have  been  fed  too  much 
grain  may  prove  so  unsuitable  to  young  lambs  at  birth 
as  to  result  in  their  death.  That  from  ewes  fed  entirely 
on  a  dry  diet  may  result  in  constipation.  This  seldom 
happens  when  the  ewes  are  fed  'even  a  moderate  allow- 
ance of  field  roots,  or  when  in  the  absence  of  roots  the 
grain  food  consists  of  bran,  oats  and  oilcake. 

Reviving  lambs  when  chilled  —  With  the  best  of  care, 
it  sometimes  happens  in  a  large  flock  that  lambs  newly 
born  will  be  chilled  before  they  are  seen  by  the  shepherd. 
To  revive  them  under  any  circumstances  is  no  easy  task, 
and,  of  course,  the  farther  the  chilling  process  has  pro- 
ceeded the  more  difficult  is  it.  As  long  as  life  remains, 
in  the  lamb,  however,  there  is  hope.  In  some  instances 
the  reviving  process  may  only  cover  a  few  hours.  In 
other  instances  the  lamb  may  remain  for  days  on  the  bor- 
derland between  life  and  death. 

One  of  two  methods  may  be  followed  in  the  effort 
to  revive  chilled  lambs.  By  the  first  the  lamb  is  wrapped 


LAMBS  FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL   WEANED  IO3 

in  a  warm  covering  and  placed  near  enough  the  stove  to 
warm  gradually.  A  small  amount  of  milk  is  given  to  it, 
providing  it  can  swallow  the  same,  and  in  the  milk  there 
should  be  a  small  amount  of  spirits,  preferably  gin.  By 
the  second,  the  lamb  is  immersed  for  a  short  time  in 
warm  water  except,  of  course,  the  head.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary to  add  more  hot  water  after  the  lamb  has  been  in 
the  water  for  a  short  time.  It  is  then  vigorously  rubbed 
until  dry,  wrapped  in  a  warm  covering  and  placed  near 
the  stove.  The  first  method  is  usually  followed  with 
lambs  that  are  not  chilled  to  the  extent  of  their  being  un- 
able to  take  nourishment,  and  the  second  method  when 
they  are  so  far  gone  as  to  be  unable  to  take  good  food. 
In  the  early  stages  of  the  chilling  process,  the  lamb  may 
sometimes  be  revived  by  simply  giving  it  milk  and 
wrapping  it  for  a  time  in  some  warm  corner  of  the  sheep 
shed. 

Certain  hazards  are  to  be  avoided  in  the  attempt  to 
revive  chilled  lambs.  One  of  these  is  the  danger  that  the 
lamb  will  be  strangled  in  the  attempt  to  give  it  milk.  A 
second  is  the  hazard  that  it  may  be  given  more  milk  than 
it  can  digest  when  in  a  condition  so  weakly.  A  third  is 
that  excessive  heat  from  the  stove  may  further  sicken 
the  lamb  and  so  hasten  its  death.  A  fourth  is  the  danger 
that  constipation  may  follow.  When  the  indications  of 
such  a  condition  manifest  themselves  (see  p.  417),  the 
treatment  should  be  given  outlined  on  the  same  page.  The  re- 
vived lamb  should  not  be  kept  away  from  the  dam  longer 
than  is  absolutely  necessary,  lest  she  disown  it. 

If  lambs  are  chilled  when  born  in  the  pastures,  the 
problem  of  reviving  them  is  usually  more  complicated. 
The  first  effort,  of  course,  should  be  to  care  for  the  lamb. 
This  done  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to  confine  the  dam 
to  the  sheds  until  the  fate  of  the  lamb  has  been  fully  de- 
termined. To  reduce  the  unrest  of  the  ewe  at  such  a 
time,  she  should  have  one  or  two  companions. 

Ewes  not  owning  their  lambs — Various  reasons  may 


IO4  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

be  given  for  ewes  not  owning  their  lambs.  Prominent 
among  these  are  the  following:  (i)  When  a  ewe  produces 
twins  and  one  lamb  wanders  away  from  her  she  may 
soon  come  to  disown  it;  (2)  she  may  be  so  devoid  of  ma- 
ternal instinct  as  to  refuse  to  give  attention  to  any  lamb ; 

(3)  the  maternal  instinct  may  be  so  developed  that  the 
ewe  will  injure  her  lamb  by  her  frenzied  attentions  and 
later  will  disown  it ;  (4)  the  ewe  may  make  a  mistake  in 
identity  and  may  persist  in  owning    the    wrong    lamb. 
Timely  intervention  on  the  part  of  the  shepherd  may  pre- 
vent the  disowning  of  the  lamb  in  the  first  instance. 

Ewes  that  act  as  indicated  in  the  second  and  third 
instances  should  not  longer  be  retained  for  breeding.  The 
instances  are  not  numerous  in  which  the  identity  of  the 
offspring  is  mistaken. 

Among  the  methods  that  have  been  adopted  to  cause 
refractory  ewes  to  own  their  lambs  are  the  following: 
(i)  Milk  is  drawn  from  the  ewe  and  rubbed  over  the  back 
and  hips  of  the  lamb,  or  what  is  even  better,  milked  on  to 
the  parts  named,  as  then  the  odor  from  the  hands  is  less 
pronounced  than  when  the  milk  is  rubbed  on  with  the 
hands.  In  some  instances  the  method  will  succeed,  but 
not  in  all  or  even  in  a  large  proportion  of  these.  (2)  The 
tail  of  the  lamb  is  cut,  and  blood  from  the  wound  is 
smeared  on  the  back  and  hips  of  the  lamb  and  on  the  nose 
of  the  ewe.  This  method  fails  in  many  instances.  (3) 
The  ewe  and  her  lamb  are  confined  in  a  pen  and  a  dog 
is  brought  up  to  it.  In  rare  instances,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  young  ewes,  this  method  will  rouse 
within  them  the  instinct  to  own  and  defend  their  young. 

(4)  The  dam  and  her  lamb  are  confined  in  a  small  in- 
closure  and  the  ewe  is  held  many  times  a  day  while  the 
lamb  takes  its  food  from  her.     In  time  she  will  become 
so  reconciled  to  the  lamb  as  to  allow  it  to  take  food.    But 
it  may  take  two  or  three  weeks  to  accomplish  this  end. 
When  the  ewe  has  produced  twins  and  owns  one  of  the 
lambs,  the  difficulty  in  overcoming  her  aversion  to  the  other  is 


LAMBS   FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL    WEANED  IC>5 

much  increased,  as  the  lamb  which  she  owns  will  get 
more  than  its  share  of  the  food.  It  may  be  necessary  in 
some  instances  to  allow  the  lamb  to  nurse  occasionally 
some  other  ewe  which  has  an  ample  supply  of  milk.  (5) 
The  ewe  is  confined  in  a  stanchion.  This  may  be  tem- 
porary or  permanent.  When  temporary  the  ewe  is  con- 
fined by  driving  two  stakes  down  into  the  ground,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  neck,  and  two  more,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  hip.  In  both  instances  they  are  tied  at  the  top. 
The  lambs  are  thus  put  in  a  position  to  help  themselves 
and  when  they  get  strong  the  ewe  will  in  time  allow 
them  to  nurse.  Where  a  large  flock  is  kept  it  may  be 
profitable  to  have  a  permanent  stanchion  with  feed  man- 
ger in  front  of  it  in  which  to  fasten  such  ewes  in  case 
of  need.  When  thus  fastened  the  ewes  can  still  lie  down 
and  rest  at  will. 

When  a  ewe  loses  her  lamb  or  lambs  she  may  be 
made  to  adopt  another  by  removing  the  skin  from  her 
dead  lamb  and  tying  it  over  the  body  of  the  other  lamb 
for  a  time.  This  plan  is  usually  more  successful  when  the 
strange  lamb  is  thus  clad  with  the  skin  of  the  other  while 
it  is  yet  warm.  Where  this  plan  does  not  succeed  the 
ewe  will  usually  come  to  allow  it  to  nurse  after  she  has 
been  made  to  suckle  it  for  a  number  of  days.  The  aim 
should  be  to  have  every  ewe  of  breeding  age  in  the  flock 
suckle  a  lamb,  not  only  because  of  the  food  which  she  is 
thus  made  to  furnish,  but  because  of  the  favorable  influ- 
ence which  it  has  on  her  future  breeding. 

Rearing  lambs  by  hand — Lambs  may  be  reared  suc- 
cessfully that  are  hand  fed.  The  cost  of  such  rearing, 
however,  is  so  much  that  in  many  instances  it  exceeds  the 
value  of  the  lambs  when  they  are  reared  for  meat  pro- 
duction only.  In  the  counties  of  Dorset  and  Somerset, 
England,  such  lambs  are  reared  regularly  by  certain 
dairymen  who  obtain  them  from  flocks  in  which  an  ex- 
cess of  lambs  have  been  produced.  It  will,  of  course,  be 


IO6  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

profitable  to  rear  pedigreed  lambs  thus  when  occasion 
calls  for  it,  providing  they  are  well  reared. 

In  some  instances  the  choice  must  be  made  between 
rearing  lambs  thus  and  allowing  them  to  perish.  These 
include  the  following:  (i)  When  the  dam  dies  at  the 
time  of  parturition  and  no  ewe  is  available  for  suckling 
the  orphan  lamb  or  lambs.  (2)  When  dams  have  triplets 
and  one  of  the  number  is  so  weakly  that  it  cannot  fight  its 
battle  alone  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  (3)  When  a 
ewe  has  produced  twins  and  persistently  disowns  one  of 
them.  In  some  instances  lambs  produced  at  the  stock- 
yards by  ewes  intended  for  or  on  their  way  to  slaughter, 
and  these  can  only  be  saved  by  those  who  have  cow's  milk 
for  rearing  them. 

The  only  real  trouble  in  rearing  such  lambs  consists 
in  starting  them  properly.  A  little  sugar  should  be  added  to 
the  cow's  milk  when  first  given  to  make  it  more  like  ewe's 
milk  in  its  constituents.  One  of  two  methods  of  feeding 
may  be  adopted.  By  the  first,  the  lamb  is  made  to  take 
its  food  from  a  bottle  with  the  nipple  similar  to  that  used 
in  feeding  children.  By  the  second  the  lamb  is  taught  to 
drink.  The  first  method  is  the  easier  one  at  the  outset, 
and  it  enables  the  lamb  to  take  its  milk  more  slowly,  and 
therefore  more  naturally,  than  when  it  drinks  from  a  ves- 
sel. The  second  method  is  the  more  troublesome  until 
the  lamb  begins  to  drink,  after  which  it  is  less  trouble- 
some than  the  former,  since  there  is  no  cleansing  of  bot- 
tles and  nipples  as  when  these  are  used.  It  also  makes 
it  possible  to  add  such  food  as  flaxseed  gruel  or  jelly  to 
the  milk  so  as  to  cheapen  the  cost  of  production.  Lambs 
may  frequently  be  taught  to  drink  milk  from  a  dipper  by 
allowing  them  at  first  to  take  the  rim  in  the  mouth  and 
raising  the  further  edge  to  bring  the  milk  to  them. 

The  young  lambs  should  be  fed  quite  frequently,  as 
often  at  first  as  every  second  hour.  The  food  should  be 
given  warm,  and  preferably  from  cows  newly  calved.  The 
times  of  feeding  may  gradually  become  fewer  until  the 


LAMBS   FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL    WEANED  IO7 

lambs  are  weaned ;  when  they  are  two  weeks  old,  five  or 
six  feeds  a  day  should  suffice;  when  a  month  old, 
three  or  four;  when  two  months  old,  two;  and  when  three 
months  old,  one.  In  getting  young  lambs  to  drink,  no 
little  patience  may  be  necessary.  They  should  be  given 
the  finger  when  drinking  for  a  time. 

The  excessive  cost  usually  incurred  in  rearing  lambs 
on  cow's  milk  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances the  milk  from  start  to  finish  is  given  in  the  whole 
form.  There  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons,  how- 
ever, why  skim  milk  should  not  be  substituted  for  whole 
milk,  as  in  the  case  of  rearing  calves.  No  experiments 
apparently  have  been  conducted  in  this  line.  The  change 
would  have  to  be  made  gradually  as  in  the  case  of  calves, 
and  as  a  matter  of  convenience  in  feeding,  may  be  made 
when  the  lambs  have  been  brought  down  to  say  three 
feeds  a  day.  Flaxseed  jelly  may  be  added,  as  in  feeding 
calves,  and  in  such  quantities  as  the  lambs  can  utilize. 
If  too  much  is  fed  the  bowels  will  become  too  lax.  When 
the  lambs  have  learned  to  eat  grain  freely,  the  equivalent 
of  the  flax  gruel  may  be  given  as  oil  meal,  and  along 
with  the  grain.  When  thus  fed  the  cost  of  food  should 
be  less  than  the  value  of  the  meat  made  from  it.  Such 
lambs  should,  of  course,  be  furnished  with  good  grazing. 

Supplemental  food  for  lambs — No  substitute  for  the 
milk  of  the  dams  can  be  given  to  lambs  that  will  meet 
their  needs  equally  well.  As  long,  therefore,  as  the  milk 
of  the  dam  meets  the  requirements  of  the  lamb,  supple- 
mental food  is  not  necessary.  But  few  dams,  however, 
can  furnish  a  lamb  with  all  the  food  that  it  needs  beyond 
the  first  three  or  four  weeks  of  its  life,  and  many  ewes 
will  not  come  up  to  this  standard.  Especially  is  this 
true  of  ewes  that  are  not  abundantly  supplied  with  suc- 
culent food. 

As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  dam  is  unable  to  meet  the 
full  needs  of  the  lambs,  supplemental  food  should  be 
given.  When  the  ewes  are  out  on  pastures  succulent, 


IO8  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

nutritious  and  abundant,  the  lambs  in  nearly  all  instances 
will  not  require  supplemental  food  other  than  that  which 
the  pasture  furnishes.  But  it  is  different  with  lambs  not 
yet  turned  out  to  graze.  They  should  be  given  succulent 
food  such  as  may  be  available,  and  also  grain,  and  they 
should  be  given  both  as  soon  as  they  will  eat  them. 

The  precise  character  of  the  grain  fed  and  the  amount 
fed  should  be  determined  by  the  object  for  which  the 
lambs  are  reared.  This  question  is  further  discussed  be- 
low under  the  subhead  immediately  following.  The  milk 
flow  of  the  dams  may  and  ought  to  be  well  maintained 
by  liberal  feeding.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  it 
will  pay  to  feed  grain  to  ewes  on  fresh  grass  for  the 
purpose  of  sustaining  or  increasing  the  milk  flow.  It  is, 
of  course,  legitimate  to  do  this  while  the  ewes  are  yet 
on  dry  food,  at  least  up  to  a  certain  limit,  but  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  the  increase  from  grain  fed 
directly  to  lambs  is  more  than  the  increase  from  the  same 
when  the  grain  is  fed  to  the  lamb,  as  it  were,  through 
the  ewe  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  milk  for  her 
lamb.  This  fact  greatly  emphasizes  the  wisdom  of  hav- 
ing the  lambs  take  grain  as  soon  as  they  will  eat  it  when 
confined  to  the  sheds. 

Food  suitable  for  young  lambs — When  the  dams  are 
on  abundant  pastures  when  the  lambs  are  born,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  give  them  any  food  during  the  first  months, 
as  usually  they  do  not  need  it,  and  it  would  not  be  easy 
to  induce  them  to  take  it  under  such  conditions.  But  in 
the  sheds  it  is  different.  In  these  the  ewes  do  not  usually 
milk  so  plentifully,  hence  the  aim  should  be  to  make  up 
the  lack  by  giving  food  to  the  lambs ;  and  the  earlier  that 
the  lambs  come  the  more  important  is  it  relatively  that 
such  food  shall  be  given  to  them. 

Young  lambs  will  begin  to  nibble  at  fodders  that  are 
suitable  for  them  when  from  7  to  10  or  12  days  old.  They 
should  have  access  to  these  apart  from  the  ewes,  as  the 
former  would  pick  out  all  the  finer  portions  such  as  the 


LAMBS   FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL    WEANED  '  IO9 

lambs  first  begin  to  eat.  Such  fodders  should  be  fine  and 
leafy.  No  fodders  furnish  food  more  suitable  than  clover 
hay  of  fine  growth,  cut  early  and  well  cured.  The  second 
growth  for  the  season  of  the  common  red  clover  has 
special  adaptation  for  such  feeding,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  alsike  clover.  Vetches  and  peas  grown  together  and 
cut  while  yet  under-ripe  are  also  much  relished  by  young 
lambs.  They  should  be  grown  so  thickly  as  to  produce 
a  fine  growth  and  should  have  enough  of  oats  in  them  to 
prevent  lodging.  It  will  pay  well  to  make  provision  for 
the  growing  of  suitable  fodders  for  young  lambs  where 
these  come  to  hand  early  and  in  any  considerable  num- 
bers. 

Succulence  should  be  provided  for  them  in  the  form 
of  cabbage,  field  roots  or  ensilage.  Of  these,  cabbage 
will  be  found  the  most  relished  by  the  young  lambs,  but 
they  soon  become  very  fond  of  field  roots.  The  cab- 
bage heads  thus  fed  must  be  sliced.  The  field  roots  are 
best  prepared  by  running  them  through  a  cutting  box 
which  cuts  them  into  slices  and  then  cuts  the  slices  into 
narrow  strips  by  the  operation.  They  are  also  fond  of 
corn  silage,  but  cabbage  and  field  roots  are  better  adapted 
to  the  production  of  suitable  bone  and  muscle.  The  aim 
should  be  to  make  field  roots  the  chief  reliance  for  such 
feeding,  as,  though  not  more  suitable  than  cabbage,  they 
are  more  easily  stored. 

The  nature  of  the  concentrates  and  the  amounts  to 
feed  young  lambs  is  influenced  by  the  use  that  is  to  be 
made  of  them.  When  the  lambs  are  to  be  sold  while  yet 
on  the  dams  the  aim  should  be  so  to  feed  them  that  they 
shall  be  plump  and  fat,  but  when  reared  for  breeding 
more  of  growth  with  less  of  fatness  is  the  important  con- 
sideration. For  the  former  the  following  mixture  will  be 
found  suitable,  viz. :  Ground  corn,  bran  and  oil  meal  in 
the  proportions  of  two,  one,  and  one  parts  by  weight.  If 
the  corn  is  simply  cracked  the  lambs  will  relish  it  as  well 
or  even  better  than  when  ground.  When  corn  is  ground 


IIO  "MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

for  lambs  the  cob  should  be  excluded.  The  oil  cake  may 
be  best  fed  in  the  form  of  granules  about  the  size  of  peas. 
In  the  above  ration,  peas  may  be  substituted  for  corn, 
and  oats  for  bran.  Corn  and  wheat  in  the  proportion  of 
two  and  one  parts  will  also  make  a  good  grain  ration. 
For  the  latter,  oats,  bran  and  oilcake,  in  the  proportions 
of  three,  one,  and  one  parts  by  weight  will  be  found  quite 
suitable. 

The  lamb  creep — For  the  first  three  or  four  weeks  after 
the  lambs  begin  to  -eat,  they  should  take  their  food  within 
what  is  termed  a  "lamb  creep,"  which  means  simply  an  in- 
closure  with  suitably  prepared  openings,  accessible  to  the 
lambs  and  not  accessible  to  the  dams  which  nurse  them.  It 
should  be  located  in  a  nice,  dry,  airy  place  and  as  con- 
venient to  the  pens  in  which  the  dams  are  kept  as  may 
be  practicable.  When  necessary  the  creep  may  be  located 
in  the  pasture.  The  size  of  the  creep  will,  of  course,  de- 
pend on  the  number  of  the  lambs  to  be  accommodated. 
From  4  to  5  square  feet  should  suffice  for  each  lamb, 
hence  a  creep,  12  x  15  feet,  should  accommodate  36  to  45 
lambs,  dependent  on  size  and  age.  The  aim  should  be, 
however,  to  have  smaller  creeps  and  to  have  one  in  each 
division  where  ewes  are  kept.  The  objection  to  large 
creeps  lies  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  lambs  congregate  in 
them  that  differ  too  much  in  age.  The  grading  of  the 
lambs  with  reference  to  size  is  more  easily  accomplished 
when  the  creeps  are  not  large. 

The  furnishings  of  a  creep  consist  of  suitable  openings 
for  ingress  and  egress  on  the  part  of  the  lambs,  a  trough 
in  which  grain  and  succulent  food  may  be  fed  and  a  little 
manger  or  rack  for  holding  the  fodder.  The  opening  or 
openings  may  consist  of  slats  nailed  up  and  down,  but 
not  far  enough  apart  to  give  access  to  the  ewes.  Rollers 
are  preferable  for  the  openings  to  slats.  They  may  be 
made,  say,  3  inches  in  diameter  and  are  set  upright  in  the 
frame.  They  are  fastened  with  springs  above  and  be- 
low, which  spread  as  the  lamb  passes  between.  They  are, 


LAMBS   FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL    WEANED  III 

in  a  sense,  a  safeguard  against  tearing  wool.  The  feed 
trough  may  be,  say,  14  inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  16 
inches  at  the  top  and  2  to  3  inches  deep.  A  board  several 
inches  wide  should  run  along  the  trough  and  supported 
so  that  the  lambs  can  eat  beneath  it  but  cannot  at  the 
same  time  get  into  the  trough  with  their  feet.  The 
trough  should  have  cross  pieces  underneath  that  will  keep 
it  above  the  level  of  the  litter. 

The  first  lambs  that  come  will  be  encouraged  to  eat 
sooner  than  they  otherwise  would  by  putting  a  little  meal 
into  the  lamb's  mouth  when  a  few  days  old.  The  younger 
lambs  will  learn  to  eat  from  the  example  of  the  older  ones. 
The  meal  should  be  put  into  the  trough  two  or  three 
times  a  day  and  any  left  removed  as  often.  No  kind  of 
food  should  be  left  with  them  until  it  becomes  stale.  The 
danger  is  slight  that  lambs  will  eat  too  much,  but  it  has 
been  claimed  that  gouty  rheumatism  and  paralysis  more 
or  less  complete  have  been  caused  by  the  blood  becom- 
ing so  thick  that  it  did  not  circulate  properly. 

Young  lambs  properly  fed  will  gain  more  in  propor- 
tion to  their  weight  than  calves.  The  weight  of  the  aver- 
age calf  at  birth  will  not  be  far  from  81  pounds,  and  of 
the  average  lamb  not  far  from  nine  pounds,  or  one-ninth 
of  the  former.  High  feeding  that  will  secure  90  pounds 
of  increase  in  the  former,  will  secure  20  pounds  or  two- 
ninths  as  much  in  the  latter.  Lambs  will  also  make  at 
least  as  economical  gains  for  the  food  consumed  as 
young  swine. 

Weaning  lambs — The  age  at  which  lambs  should  be 
weaned  is  modified  by  such  conditions  as  (i)  the  sea- 
son when  they  came  into  life,  (2)  the  object  for  which 
they  are  grown,  and  (3)  the  disposition  that  is  to  be 
made  of  the  dams.  When  lambs  come  early  they  may 
be  given  a  longer  period  of  nursing  than  when  they  come 
late,  as  in  such  instances  the  ewes  have  time  enough  to 
get  into  an  improved  condition  after  prolonged  nursing 
before  they  are  bred  again.  When  grown  for  show  pur- 


112  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF    S&EEP 

poses,  and  in  some  instances  when  grown  for  breeding, 
they  are  suckled  longer  than  when  grown  simply  for 
meat,  with  a  view  to  get  much  size.  When  the  ewes 
which  suckle  lambs  are  low  in  flesh  and  are  soon  to  be 
bred  again,  it  may  be  well  to  shorten  somewhat  the  period 
during  which  the  lambs  nurse,  even  at  the  hazard  of 
slightly  retarding  their  development  for  the  time  being. 

The  usual  period  during  which  lambs  nurse  covers 
about  5  months,  or  a  little  less  than  that.  The  ewes  are 
thus  given  two  months  and  more,  in  some  instances,  in 
which  to  recuperate  before  being  bred  again.  The  period 
of  nursing  may  be  shortened  considerably  should  the 
necessity  for  doing  so  arise,  by  giving  the  lambs  a  suffi- 
cient grain  supplement,  or  it  may  be  likewise  extended 
by  giving  a  grain  supplement  to  the  ewes. 

The  weaning  of  the  lambs  is  abrupt  rather  than  grad- 
ual. To  wean  lambs  gradually  as  calves  are  sometimes 
weaned,  and  also  swine,  would  involve  much  labor,  for 
which  there  would  probably  be  no  adequate  recompense. 
The  method  almost  universally  adopted,  therefore,  is  to 
remove  the  lambs  quite  away  from  the  ewes,  and  if  possi- 
ble far  enough  away  so  that  their  bleating  will  not  reach 
the  ewes.  When  removed  thus  far  from  the  lambs,  the 
latter  will  dry  more  quickly  than  if  they  heard  and 
answered  the  calling  of  the  lambs. 

The  weaning  season  also  usually  furnishes  a  good 
time  for  grading  the  rams.  When  ram  and  ewe  lambs 
have  run  together  up  to  the  time  of  weaning  they  should 
then  be  separated,  otherwise  the  females  may  become 
pregnant,  a  result  that  would  be  most  undesirable.  The 
weaning  season  also  furnishes  a  suitable  time  for  select- 
ing the  females  to  be  retained  for  breeding.  These  are 
then  separated  from  the  others  which  are  to  be  sold,  as 
the  food  subsequently  given  to  these  two  classes  may 
differ  materially.  In  some  instances  the  necessity  may  be 
present  for  further  sub-grading  the  lambs  to  be  sold  ac- 
cording to  the  disposal  that  is  to  be  made  of  them. 


LAMBS  FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL   WEANED  113 

Food  for  lambs  when  weaned — When  lambs  are 
weaned,  they  should,  if  possible,  be  put  upon  pastures 
fresh,  succulent  and  nutritious.  Frequently  the  ordinary 
grasses  at  such  a  time  are  dry,  but  the  second  growth  of 
clover  is  then  at  its  best,  and  it  furnishes  a  very  suitable 
pasture  for  lambs.  In  anticipation  of  the  weaning  sea- 
son, winter  rye  may  be  sown  in  the  North  and  cowpeas 
in  the  South,  so  that  these  may  be  ready  for  grazing  when 
the  lambs  are  to  be  weaned.  No  plant,  however,  has 
equal  suitability  to  such  grazing  as  the  dwarf  essex  rape, 
and  none  can  be  furnished  in  better  season  at  such  a 
time.  When  well-grown  rape  is  on  hand  in  plentiful  sup- 
ply, ordinarily  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed  any  grain  sup- 
plement. But  much  care  should  be  exercised  when  first 
turning  the  lambs  out  into  the  rape,  lest  there  should  be 
loss  from  bloating  (see  p.  193). 

Usually  lambs  for  show  purposes  should  be  given  a 
liberal  grain  supplement  in  addition  to  the  pasture  or  the 
soiling  food  to  which  they  may  have  access.  When  am- 
ple rape  pastures  are  not  on  hand,  lambs  of  both  sexes 
which  are  to  be  sold  for  breeding  should  get  a  grain  sup- 
plement. To  take  the  market  properly  they  should  be  of 
good  size  and  also  in  good  flesh.  Lambs  that  are  to  be 
sold  for  meat  will  usually  profit  by  a  grain  ration  when 
they  are  to  be  sold  early,  but  when  retained  for  winter 
fattening,  this  may  not  be  necessary  when  the  grazing 
is  good.  Nor  is  it  necessary  under  like  conditions  for  ewe 
lambs  chosen  to  replenish  the  flock. 

The  basic  food  in  the  grain  supplement  for  lambs 
that  are  to  be  set  apart  for  breeding  is  oats,  and  for  being 
ready  for  the  block  it  is  corn.  But  barley,  speltz,  rye  and 
millet  may  all  be  used  more  or  less  in  lieu  of  corn  ;  oats 
alone  will  furnish  a  good  grain  supplement  for  the  former, 
but  corn  is  too  strong  a  food  to  feed  alone  to  the  latter. 
Among  grain  supplements  fed  to  lambs  retained  for 
breeding  the  following  will  be  found  suitable  :  Oats  alone, 
oats  and  bran,  the  latter  not  to  exceed  33  per  cent  by 


114  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

weight  of  the  mixture,  as  lambs  are  not  particularly  fond 
of  bran;  oats  and  wheat  in  the  proportions  of,  say,  three 
and  one  parts  respectively.  Among  those  fed  to  lambs 
which  are  to  be  sent  to  the  block  are  the  following :  Corn 
and  bran,  of  which  not  more  than  33  per  cent  shall  be 
bran;  corn,  bran  and  oil  cake  in  the  proportions  of,  say 
six,  two,  and  one  parts  by  weight.  Oats  fed  freely  along 
with  corn  at  the  first  will  add  much  to  its  suitability,  but 
later  if  oats  should  be  dear,  they  may  be  gradually  elim- 
inated from  the  ration.  The  quantity  to  feed  will  man- 
ifestly be  much  influenced,  first,  by  the  character  of  the 
grazing,  and,  second,  by  the  disposition  that  is  to  be  made 
of  the  lambs.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  feed  more  than  a 
pound  per  animal  per  day,  and  usually  half  that  amount 
will  suffice. 

When  lambs  have  not  been  fed  grain  previously  to  the 
weaning  season,  they  may  not  begin  to  eat  it  at  once.  In 
such  instances  some  grain  should  be  kept  in  a  trough 
placed  where  the  lambs  are  much  inclined  to  congregate 
when  taking  rest.  They  will  soon  learn  to  eat.  No  such 
difficulty  arises  with  lambs  that  have  taken  grain  at  an 
earlier  age.  It  is  usually  most  convenient  to  feed  the 
lambs  in  the  field.  A  very  simple  feeding  trough  may  be 
made  by  nailing  together  two-inch  boards  from  6  to  7 
inches  wide,  so  as  to  make  a  V,  and  supporting  the  same 
at  a  suitable  height  by  2  x  4-inch  scantlings  nailed 
together  like  the  legs  of  a  sawhorse.  The  height  from  the 
ground  should  be  made  to  conform  to  the  size  of  the 
lambs.  One  end  of  the  trough  should  be  left  open  to 
allow  water  to  escape.  A  narrow  strip,  say,  1x2  inches 
and  not  less  than  3  to  4  feet  long,  should  be  nailed  on 
edge  against  the  scantlings  that  support  the  trough  and 
just  at  the  base  of  the  same.  The  object  is  to  prevent 
the  lambs  from  overturning  the  trough  should  they  rub 
against  it. 

Castrating  lambs — The  best  age  for  castrating  lambs 
is  when  they  are  about  three  days  old.  In  any  event  cas- 


LAMBS   FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL    WEANED  115 

tration  should  not  be  deferred  beyond  the  age  of  three 
weeks.  The  lambs  will  suffer  less  from  the  operation 
the  younger  they  are  after  they  are  well  on  their  feet. 
Of  course,  it  may  be  done  later,  as  late  even  as  the 
autumn,  but  the  hazard  in- 
creases with  advancing  age 
and  the  benefits  decrease. 

Very  substantial  benefits 
arise  from  the  early  castration 
of  the  lambs  that  are  to  be 
grown  for  meat ;  that  is,  if  they 
are  not  disposed  of  until  after  FIG'  ^FEESSRACK  FOR 
the  weaning  season.  It  is  not 

thought  to  be  necessary  to  castrate  lambs  sent  to  the 
block  while  yet  nursing.  First,  they  attain  to  a 
greater  size,  especially  after  the  age  arrives  when 
they  become  capable  of  breeding.  After  that  age 
is  reached,  castrated  lambs  are  more  restful,  and  so  make 
better  gains ;  second,  they  are  more  easily  managed  when 
castrated.  Both  sexes  may  then  run  together  at  all  times 
without  the  hazard  that  the  females  shall  become  preg- 
nant. Third,  the  early  castration  results  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a  better  carcass.  It  prevents  undue  development 
of  bone,  especially  in  the  head  and  neck,  and  also  lessens 
muscular  development  about  the  neck  and  breast  where 
the  meat  is  not  specially  valuable.  It  also  stops  develop- 
ment in  the  organs  of  generation,  which,  of  course,  are 
practically  valueless  for  food.  Buyers  discount  severely 
uncastrated  lambs.  During  recent  years  at  the  Buffalo 
and  New  York  markets,  the  discrimination  against  ram 
lambs  uncastrated  after  the  mating  season  has  been  fully 
one  dollar  per  lamb.  The  methods  adopted  in  castrating 
young  lambs  are  various.  Of  these  three  may  be  given. 
By  the  first,  the  scrotum  is  cut  off  close  to  the  body  with 
a  pair  of  strong  shears.  This  should  be  done  when  the 
lamb  is  not  more  than  two  or  three  days  old.  Unless  in 
the  case  of  lambs  that  are  to  be  shorn,  this  method  an- 


Il6  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

swers  at  least  reasonably  well,  and  it  is  certainly  the 
easiest  method  of  castration  by  far  that  can  be  adopted. 
It  has  been  objected  to  on  the  ground  that  the  lambs 
show  some  stiffness  of  gait  for  a  time  after  the  operation, 
which  is  cited  as  evidence  that  it  must  so  far  retard  de- 
velopment. 

By  the  second  method,  the  operator  does  the  work 
alone.  The  lamb  is  laid  on  the  left  side,  and  the  operator 
presses  the  lamb  against  his  knees  and  keeps  it  in  position 
with  his  elbows  which  leaves  both  hands  free.  With  a 
sharp  knife  he  cuts  off  a  portion  of  the  base  of  the  scro- 
tum, including  the  lining  membrane.  The  testicles  are 
thus  exposed,  and  when  pressed  out  by  the  hand  are 
seized  and  drawn  out  one  at  a  time  by  the  teeth. 

By  the  third  method  two  persons  are  engaged  in  the 
work.  One  catches  the  lamb,  gathers  the  feet  in  his 
hands  and  then  presses  its  back  firmly  against  his  chest. 
A  second  person  then  cuts  off  a  portion  of  the  scrotum 
as  in  the  second  instance  and  similarly  draws  out  the 
testicles.  No  other  method  will  remove  the  testicles  so 
easily  as  when  they  are  firmly  grasped  by  the  teeth. 
Should  there  be  any  repugnance  to  removing  them  thus, 
they  may  be  grasped  by  the  hand  or  by  forceps  in  the 
hand,  drawn  out,  and  in  the  case  of  older  animals  the  cord 
when  drawn  far  enough  is  severed  with  the  knife. 

Should  lambs  be  purchased  for  winter  feeding  in  the 
autumn  that  are  uncastrated,  it  may  be  more  profitable  to 
subject  them  to  castration  before  feeding  thansto  feed 
them  as  rams.  The  work  may  be  done  as  follows :  A 
strong  person  catches  the  lamb,  places  him  on  his  but- 
tock with  his  back  leaning  against  the  one  who  holds  him. 
The  holder  of  the  animal  takes  a  hind  leg  in  each  hand 
and  draws  the  legs  up  until  the  lamb  is  almost  lifted  from 
the  ground.  The  knees  should  be  pressed  tightly  against 
the  lamb  to  prevent  struggling.  A  second  person  catches 
the  end  of  the  scrotum  in  his  right  hand  and  with  the  left 
pushes  the  testicles  down  against  the  abdomen  and  keeps 


LAMBS  FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL   WEANED  1 1/ 

them  there  by  the  grip  of  the  left  hand.  He  then  cuts 
across  the  sack  close  to  the  end  of  the  testicles,  but  only 
cuts  through  one  ply  of  skin.  He  then  catches  the  testi- 
cles, one  at  a  time,  in  his  right  hand  and  with  the  left 
pushes  back  all  extraneous  matter,  following  the  cord 
down  close  to  the  abdomen.  The  cord  is  then  firmly 
grasped  in  the  left  hand  and  drawn  slowly  by  prying 
gently  toward  the  thigh  until  it  is  quite  drawn  away. 
Then  with  a  long  knife  the  scrotum  is  cut  clean  off  where 
the  first  cut  was  made.  Should  the  season  of  flies  not  be 
past,  a  small  amount  of  spirits  of  turpentine  may  be 
poured  into  the  sac.  Tar  smeared  over  the  wounded  parts 
will  also  aid  in  keeping  flies  away.  Mature  rams  are  sel- 
dom castrated.  When  thus  dealt  with  clamps  are  com- 
monly used. 

When  lambs  are  castrated,  the  early  morning  should 
be  chosen  for  the  operation,  as  the  opportunity  is  then 
afforded  of  giving  them  such  attentions  as  may  be  neces- 
sary during  the  day,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  time 
chosen  for  docking  lambs  referred  to  below.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  knife  used  be  sterilized,  and  also  the 
hands  of  the  operator,  before  castration  is  begun.  The 
sheds  should  also  be  freshly  bedded  if  the  lambs  are  con- 
fined to  them  at  the  time,  to  lessen  the  hazard  of  germ 
contamination  that  may  cause  trouble.  Usually  antisep- 
tics are  not  used  when  young  lambs  are  castrated.  A 
three  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in  water  will  an- 
swer the  purpose  should  it  be  desired  to  use  an  antiseptic. 

Docking  lambs — Whatever  benefits  may  have  ac- 
crued to  sheep  in  a  wild  state,  it  is  now  the  almost  uni- 
versally accepted  view  of  those  who  keep  sheep  that  under 
domestic  conditions  the  tail  should  be  removed  while  the 
animals  are  young.  This  view  rests  upon  the  belief,  first, 
that  under  domestication  the  tail  can  render  no  substan- 
tial benefit  to  the  sheep  which  possesses  it,  and  second, 
that  its  presence  is  frequently  injurious  because  of  the 
filth  that  accumulates  around  and  beneath  it  when  sheep 


Il8  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

are  being  grazed  on  succulent  pastures.  Where  such  filth 
accumulates  in  warm  weather,  it  encourages  the  presence 
of  flies,  the  eggs  of  which  may  develop  into  maggots  and 
work  much  harm.  Modern  taste  also  looks  upon  the 
sheep  that  is  docked  as  being  more  symmetrical  and  hand- 
some than  sheep  with  the  tail  full  length. 

The  tail  should  be  docked — that  is,  cut — while  lambs 
are  only  a  few  days  old.  When  done  at  such  an  age  the 
development  of  the  lamb  is  not  hindered.  The  danger  of 
loss  from  bleeding  is  almost  wholly  obviated.  Such  a  re- 
sult is  by  no  means  uncommon  where  the  lambs  are  not 
docked  until  several  weeks  old,  unless  steps  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  it.  Valuable  lambs  docked  thus  late 
have  bled  to  death.  This,  however,  can  be  prevented 
by  searing  the  wound  with  a  hot  iron.  Opinions  differ  as 
to  the  advisability  of  castrating  and  docking  lambs  at  the 
same  time.  Although  more  time  is  used  in  performing 
these  operations  separately,  it  would  seem  reasonable  to 
conclude  that  the  shock  given  to  the  system  would  be 
lessened  by  performing  these  operations  at  different 
times. 

The  cutting  of  the  tail  may  be  done  by  one  person  or 
by  two.  When  done  by  one,  the  lamb  is  taken  under  the 
left  arm  and  the  loose  skin  is  drawn  upward  toward  the 
body  near  the  base  of  the  tail.  It  is  then  severed  with 
a  pair  of  strong  scissors  held  in  the  right  hand.  A  little 
powdered  blue  stone  dusted  on  to  the  wound  will  tend 
to  stanch  the  bleeding.  The  skin  is  then  drawn  down 
so  as  to  partially  cover  the  wound,  which  heals  over  more 
neatly  and  smoothly  than  when  the  skin  is  not  thus  drawn 
back  before  severing  the  tail. 

When  two  persons  perform  the  docking  the  lamb  is 
held  by  one  and  the  tail  is  severed  by  the  other.  The 
lamb  may  be  held  by  pressing  its  back  firmly  against  the 
breast  of  the  person  holding  it,  the  legs  being  held  in  his 
hands,  when  a  second  person  severs  the  tail.  By  another 
method,  and  a  better  one,  the  person  holding  the  lamb 


LAMBS  FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL   WEANED  119 

places  its  buttock  on  a  block  of  suitable  height,  and  a 
second  person  removes  the  tail  by  severing  it  with  a  chisel 
and  mallet.  The  length  of  the  stump  left  varies  some- 
what with  the  breed.  Fashion  has  an  influence  in  deter- 
mining this.  The  tails  of  the  Merino  types  are  cut  quite 
short.  The  tails  of  English  Dorsets  are  sometimes  left 
as  long  as  3  inches.  The  average  length  of  the  stump 
left  is  about  i^4  to  il/2  inches,  measured  on  the  underside. 

Registration  of  pure-bred  lambs — Where  any  consid- 
erable number  of  lambs  are  expected  each  lamb  should 
be  marked  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible  to  avoid  the  haz- 
ard of  loss  of  identity.  This  will  prove  helpful  to  the 
shepherd  in  caring  for  a  flock  even  of  grade  lambs,  and  in 
the  case  of  pure-bred  lambs  it  is  essential  as  a  guide  to 
correct  registration  when  the  time  comes  for  registering 
the  lambs.  Some  shepherds  adopt  the  plan  of  tracing 
identity  by  placing  small  nicks  in  the  ears  according  to 
a  certain  rule  which  has  been  found  practicable  to  use  in  a 
flock  of  any  size.  But  there  is  probably  no  better  method 
of  preserving  identity  than  by  marking  the  lambs  with 
shepherds'  marking  ink,  as  identity  may  then  be  traced 
on  sight.  The  marking  consists  in  painting  on  the  back 
of  the  lamb  with  a  small  brush  the  number  corresponding 
to  the  ear  tag  of  the  ewe.  This  should  be  done  while  the 
lamb  is  not  yet  more  than  two  or  three  days  old.  As  the 
ink  fades  with  time  it  may  be  necessary  to  renew  it  once 
before  the  lamb  is  weaned.  The  registration  of  pure-bred 
lambs  should  be  deferred  long  enough  to  demonstrate  the 
character  of  the  individual  development.  Such  develop- 
ment may  be  of  a  character  so  inferior  that  it  would  be 
unwise  to  retain  the  lambs  for  breeding,  hence  it  would 
also  be  unwise  to  register  them.  The  nature  of  the  develop- 
ment will  certainly  be  known  by  the  time  that  the  lambs  are 
weaned,  and  even  before  the  time.  The  registering  of  the 
lambs,  therefore,  should  not  be  deferred  beyond  the  sea- 
son of  weaning. 

If  lambs  are  not  registered  the  first  season,  the  dan- 


I2O  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ger  is  imminent  that  their  identity  will  be  lost.  If  prop- 
erly ear-tagged  as  soon  as  registered,  the  identity  of  the 
animal  will  not  be  lost  as  long  as  the  ear  tag  retains  its 
place  in  the  ear,  the  registration  certificate  being  at  the 
same'  time  kept  on  file.  As  it  is  possible,  however,  that 
the  ear  tag  may  be  lost,  although  this  happens  but  sel- 
dom, it  should  be  renewed  as  soon  as  this  is  discovered, 
using,  of  course,  the  same  number  as  the  one  lost.  Ear 
tags  should  not  be  put  in  the  ears  of  young  lambs,  as  the 
weight  of  the  ear  tag  may  make  the  ear  unshapely. 

The  owner  of  sheep  who  may  desire  to  register  them 
and  who  is  not  yet  informed  as  to  how  he  should  proceed 
should  write  to  the  secretary  of  the  association  which 
represents  that  particular  breed,  asking  for  the  desired  in- 
formation. The  reply  will  furnish  all  that  is  necessary  to 
know  to  enable  the  person  to  record  his  sheep.  Many  of 
the  associations  furnish  ear  tags  corresponding  to  the 
numbers  in  the  certificates  of  registration,  and  these 
should  at  once  be  inserted  in  the  ears  of  the  sheep.  The 
rules  of  many  of  the  associations  compel  the  registration 
of  lambs  within  the  year  in  which  they  are  born,  and  this 
rule  is  doubtless  a  wise  one. 

Miscellaneous  considerations — It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  milk  of  a  ewe  highly  fed  is  so  rich  and  so  abun- 
dant that  the  lamb  takes  more  than  it  can  properly  digest. 
The  principle  is  the  same  as  when  the  Jersey  cow  gives 
milk  too  rich  in  butter  fat  for  the  best  needs  of  her  calf. 
Lambs  are  sometimes  lost  from  this  cause.  When  the 
lamb  is  unable  to  take  all  the  milk,  a  lamb  in  need  of 
more  milk  should  be  allowed  to  suck  the  ewe  once  or 
twice  a  day  for  a  time.  This  will  prevent  the  young  lamb 
from  getting  an  excess  of  milk.  Should  a  lamb  be  sepa- 
rated from  its  dam  through  any  mischance  for  any  con- 
siderable time,  to  prevent  derangement  in  the  digestion 
of  the  lamb,  the  ewe  should  be  partially  milked  out  before 
the  lamb  is  allowed  to  suck. 

Some  shepherds  store  up  some  dry  clean  earth  in  the 


LAMBS  FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL   WEANED  121 

autumn  and  place  it  where  the  lambs  may  nibble  at  it  if 
they  care  to  do  so.  When  roots  are  fed  to  lambs  in  winter, 
it  has  been  noticed  that  lambs  will  eat  some  of  the  earth 
adhering  to  them.  Observing  this  fact  has  doubtless  led 
to  the  provision  referred  to.  While  no  harm  should  fol- 
low such  provision,  the  measure  of  its  efficacy  is  yet  an 
undetermined  factor. 

Lambs  should  be  amply  supplied  with  water  from 
the  time  that  they  will  take  it,  which  will  be  from  the  age 
of,  say,  two  weeks  and  onward.  Such  provision  is  seldom 
made  for  lambs,  notwithstanding  its  importance.  It  can 
usually  be  best  provided  for  them  by  placing  it  in  a  low 
vessel  within  the  creep  and  renewing  it  frequently.  The 
necessity  for  water  decreases  with  increase  in  the  con- 
sumption of  field  roots. 

In  almost  every  flock  of  ewes  at  the  lambing  season 
some  young  lambs  will  be  found  that  are  not  getting 
enough  milk  from  their  dams  to  make  them  grow  vigor- 
ously. It  is  quite  possible  to  help  them  materially  by 
keeping  a  nurse  cow  at  hand  from  which  they  can  get  a 
good  meal  once  or  twice  a  day.  A  docile,  low-set  cow  of 
the  Jersey  type  should  prove  very  suitable.  One  person 
should  have  the  cow  in  charge  and  another  should  man- 
age the  lambs.  It  is  not  difficult  usually  to  learn  a  hun- 
gry lamb  thus  to  help  itself.  The  effect  on  the  growth 
of  the  lambs  will  be  very  marked. 


CHAPTER  VII 
FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BREEDING  EWES 

In  this  chapter  the  following  subdivisions  of  the 
question  relating  to  the  feeding  and  care  of  breeding  ewes 
are  discussed:  (i)  Ewes  from  the  time  that  they  are 
weaned  as  lambs  until  bred;  (2)  Management  at  the 
breeding  season;  (3)  Changing  from  autumn  pasture  to 
winter  quarters;  (4)  The  ideal  conditions  for  wintering; 
(5)  Grading  the  flock;  (6)  Food  prior  to  the  time  of 
lambing;  (7)  Exercise  for  breeding  ewes  when  pregnant; 
(8)  Caring  for  ewes  at  the  time  of  lambing;  (9)  Food  for 
ewes  subsequently  to  lambing;  (10)  From  the  sheds  to 
the  pastures;  (n)  Management  when  on  pasture;  (12) 
Management  when  weaning  the  lambs;  (13)  The  man- 
agement of  ewes  to  be  discarded;  and  (14)  The  miscella- 
neous attentions  that  are  more  or  less  called  for.  The 
importance  of  giving  proper  care  to  the  ewes  cannot  be 
easily  over-estimated  because  of  the  important  bearing 
that  it  has  upon  the  profits.  The  attention  called  for, 
though  greater  at  certain  seasons,  cannot  be  withheld 
at  any  time  without  hazard  to  the  owner. 

Ewes  from  weaning  until  bred — There  is  almost  a 
consensus  of  opinion  as  to  the  wisdom  of  deferring  the 
breeding  of  the  ewes  so  that  they  will  not  drop  their  first 
lambs  until  two  years  old.  This  opinion  is  based  on  the 
results  that  usually  follow  the  breeding  of  ewes  so  that 
they  produce  lambs  at  one  year  old.  These  results  are 
usually:  (i)  Lambs  not  up  to  the  standard  in  size  and 
inherent  powers  of  development ;  (2)  inability  on  the  part 
of  the  ewes  to  provide  for  their  lambs  while  nursing  them 
as  compared  with  that  of  ewes  not  bred  at  so  early  an 
ag"e  I  (3)  ultimate  lessening  in  size  and  vigor  of  the  aver- 
age in  the  flock.  But  it  may  not  be  correct  to  claim  that 


FEEDING   AND    CARE   OF  BREEDING   EWES  123 

such  early  breeding  should  never  be  practiced.  It  is  prac- 
ticed more  or  less  in  the  south  of  England  by  the  breed- 
ers of  Hampshire  Downs,  and  to  a  less  extent  by  the 
breeders  of  some  of  the  other  breeds.  It  is  believed  that 
the  practice  tends  to  promote  early  maturing  and  also 
affects  prolificacy  favorably.  But  the  conditions  in  the 
south  of  England  are  highly  favorable  to  the  production 
of  succulent  foods  so  necessary  as  an  aid  to  rapid  growth 
in  lambs,  whether  fed  directly  or  through  the  ewes. 
Where  such  foods  are  not  plentiful  during  much  of  the 
year,  ewes  should  not  be  allowed  to  produce  lambs  until 
two  years  old,  and  in  the  case  of  Merinos  it  may  in  some 
instances  be  wiser  to  defer  such  production  for  one  more 
year. 

The  food  and  care  called  for  subsequent  to  weaning 
will  be  influenced  by  the  fact  as  to  whether  the  lambs  are 
bred  the  same  autumn,  or  not  until  the  following  autumn. 
When  bred  as  lambs,  more  of  concentrated  food  should 
be  given  during  the  autumn  subsequent  to  weaning,  and 
also  during  all  of  the  following  winter,  the  reasons  for 
which  will  be  apparent.  In  any  event,  the  lambs  should  in 
nearly  all  instances  be  given  some  concentrates  from  the 
time  that  they  are  weaned  until  the  following  spring,  but 
to  this  there  are  some  exceptions.  These  include  condi- 
tions which  furnish  in  plentiful  supply  of  such  pastures  as 
rape  until  winter  closes  in  and  of  field  roots  during  the 
winter.  The  aim  should  be  to  select  the  ewe  lambs  for 
breeding  when  they  are  weaned,  and  to  separate  them 
from  the  lambs  that  are  to  be  fattened,  as  the  treatment 
called  for  by  these  two  classes  may  differ  somewhat.  In 
the  absence  of  rape  pastures,  succulent  blue  grass  and 
winter  rye  are  good.  When  grain  is  fed,  oats,  with  a 
small  amount  of  wheat  bran  added,  are  excellent.  But 
a  small  amount  of  any  of  the  other  cereals  will  answer. 
The  grain  is  usually  fed  but  once  a  day,  and  seldom  in 
excess  of  one-half  pound  to  one  pound  per  animal. 

During  the  winter,  the  aim  should  be  to  keep  the 


124  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

lambs  separate  from  the  pregnant  ewes,  as  the  latter  will 
call  for  a  different  ration.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep 
them  growing  and  "sappy"  without  laying  on  too  much 
fat.  This  will  follow  if  they  can  have  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  roots,  even  in  the  absence  of  grain,  especially  if 
the  fodder  fed  is  good.  In  the  absence  of  field  roots,  some 
grain  will  prove  helpful.  But  when  fine,  well-cured  clover 
and  alfalfa  of  tender  growth  are  fed,  the  additional  grain 
called  for  will  be  very  limited.  Almost  any  of  the  small 
grains  will  answer,  especially  when  a  small  quantity  of 
wheat  bran,  or  in  its  absence  oilcake,  is  added.  The 
amount  of  grain  to  feed  should  be  determined  by  the  con- 
dition of  the  ewes.  In  the  absence  of  field  roots,  two  or 
three  pounds  of  good  corn  silage  daily  will  be  helpful. 

From  winter  on  until  the  mating  season,  such  want 
no  other  food  than  ordinary  pasture.  It  may  not  be  neces- 
sary at  such  a  time  to  keep  them  in  pastures  separate 
from  those  grazed  by  the  ewes  which  are  nursing  their 
lambs.  In  some  instances,  however,  it  may  be  desirable 
to  give  them  pastures  less  bountiful  than  those  occupied 
by  the  latter,  to  prevent  them  from  reaching  that  stage 
of  obesity  which  would  be  unfavorable  to  impregnation. 

Management  at  the  breeding  season — It  is  a  matter 
of  considerable  importance  that  the  ewes  shall  mate  so 
as  to  drop  lambs  approximately  at  the  time  desired  and 
within  a  reasonably  short  period.  The  object  for  which 
they  are  grown  will  then  be  more  fully  realized,  the  labor 
of  caring  for  them  will  be  less  and  uniformity  in  the  flock 
will  be  better  maintained.  The  flockmaster  may  not  al- 
ways be  able  to  accomplish  this,  because  of  the  extent 
to  which  the  weather  during  the  season  affects  pastures, 
but  he  may  adopt  measures  that  will  prove  a  material  aid 
in  the  direction  desired. 

The  time  at  which  the  ewes  will  mate  may  be  con- 
trolled more  readily  when  the  lambs  have  been  weaned 
early  in  the  season.  Opportunity  is  then  given  for  the 
ewes  to  recover  from  the  reduced  flesh  resulting  from  the 


FEEDING  AND   CARE  OF  BREEDING   EWES  125 

nursing  of  their  lambs.  Such  a  condition  will  be  acceler- 
ated by  pastures  that  are  rich,  succulent  and  plentiful. 
Where  these  are  not  forthcoming"  to  the  degree  desired, 
resource  must  be  had  to  feeding  grain.  But  the  system 
followed  will  be  modified  materially  by  the  conditions 
under  which  the  animals  are  kept. 

When  sheep  are  kept  under  extensive  conditions,  as 
on  the  range  or  on  rugged  pastures,  it  may  not  be  prac- 
ticable to  furnish  any  succulent  food.  Under  such  con- 
ditions the  shepherd  can  do  but  little  toward  hastening 
the  breeding.  Usually,  however,  it  is  not  desired  to  has- 
ten it,  as  the  lambs  cannot  come  before  the  grasses  have 
made  a  start  the  following  spring.  Under  semi-range 
conditions  it  may  be  possible  to  furnish  supplemental 
food  that  will  modify  the  time  within  which  the  ewes  will 
mate. 

On  the  arable  farm  the  aim  should  be  to  have  the 
ewes  mate  when  the  system  is  building  up.  The  breed- 
ing organs  sharing  in  such  increase  are  stimulated  into 
action.  Food  is  the  chief  influence  in  bringing  about  such 
renovation.  Where  ewes  can  have  access  to  abundant 
rape  pastures  pretty  well  grown,  they  will  soon  come  in 
heat.  Other  succulent  and  nutritious  pastures,  such  as 
clover,  will  exercise  a  similar  influence,  but  not  in  an 
equal  degree.  Where  pastures  sufficiently  stimulating 
may  not  be  had,  then  the  process  known  as  flushing  may 
be  resorted  to.  It  consists  in  feeding  grain  for  two  to 
four  weeks  before  the  mating  is  desired.  Almost  any 
kind  of  grain  will  answer.  Some  shepherds  favor  feeding 
barley  and  wheat.  Corn  and  rye  are  probably  least  in 
favor  for  such  feeding.  The  quantity  to  feed  may  be  put 
at  from  one-half  to  one  pound  per  animal  daily. 

It  is  also  considered  that,  in  warm  climates,  the  mat- 
ing season  will  be  hastened  by  shearing  the  ewes  just 
after  their  lambs  are  weaned.  While  it  is  probably  true 
that  such  shearing  does  exert  an  influence  in  the  direc- 
tion sought,  it  is  questionable  if  the  practice  is  likely  to 


126  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

become  general.  It  involves  labor,  and  in  the  meantime 
the  wool  does  not  sell  for  so  good  a  price. 

The  condition  of  the  ewes  at  the  time  of  mating  is 
supposed,  and  with  good  reasons,  to  exercise  some  influ- 
ence on  the  number  of  the  lambs  that  will  be  born.  A 
vigorous  condition  of  the  ewes  at  the  time  of  mating  is 
favorable  to  fecundity.  It  is  not  the  only  influence,  how- 
ever, that  favors  an  abundant  lamb  crop  (see  p.  465). 

From  the  pastures  to  winter  quarters — The  change 
from  pastures  to  winter  quarters  will  be  modified  by  the 
conditions  such  as  relate  to  climate  and  peculiarities  of 
season.  Under  some  conditions  the  first  snows  remain 
and  close  abruptly  the  pasturing  season.  Under  other 
conditions,  the  first  snows  usually  melt,  so  that  grazing 
may  be  resumed  for  a  time,  and  under  yet  other  condi- 
tions it  may  be  continued  during  much  of  the  winter. 
The  aim  should  be  to  have  grazing  continue  as  long  as 
this  may  be  practicable,  not  so  much  in  order  to  save 
stored  foods  as  to  give  the  sheep  that  exercise  that  is  so 
helpful  to  the  maintenance  of  the  flock  in  a  good  condition 
of  health  and  vigor.  Some  winters  in  areas  not  far  north 
sheep  can  graze  on  the  pastures  during  much  of  the  win- 
ter, a  condition  that  highly  favors  vigor  in  the  lambs. 

When  changing  from  grazing  to  winter  food  given 
in  the  sheds,  three  things  should  be  guarded  against.  The 
first  is  eating  frozen  food,  the  second  exposure  to  cold 
rain  or  sleet  storms  and  the  third  sudden  changes  in  the 
food. 

It  is  but  seldom  that  harm  comes  from  grazing  sheep 
on  pastures  in  late  autumn  in  which  the  old  and  new 
growths  are  mingled,  as,  for  instance,  a  blue  grass  pas- 
ture that  has  not  been  closely  grazed  in  the  summer.  The 
dry  grass  mingling  with  the  green  seems  to  counteract 
the  injury  that  might  result  from  feeding  on  frozen  green 
grass.  When,  however,  the  sheep  feed  upon  such  food 
as  frozen  rape  or  clover,  and  also  other  green  food,  the 
hazard  is  present  that  such  ailments  as  bloat,  colic  and  an 


FEEDING   AND   CARE   OF  BREEDING    EWES  I2/ 

inflamed  condition  of  the  digestive  organs  may  result, 
followed  by  death  within  a  short  period.  Such  hazard 
may  be  present  by  giving  the  sheep  or  lambs  so  grazed 
either  grain  or  palatable  fodder  before  turning  them  out 
to  graze.  Where  the  sheep  are  much  grazed  on  such  food, 
inattention  to  this  matter  may  result  in  severe  losses. 

Dry  snow  falling  on  sheep  will  harm  them  but  little, 
providing  they  may  have  the  shelter  of  a  grove  or  bluff  to 
protect  them  when  driving  wind  accompanies  the  storm. 
But  it  is  different  when  they  are  exposed  to  cold  rain  or 
sleet  storms,  especially  when  they  are  prolonged.  The 
Merino  types  suffer  the  least  from  such  exposure,  and  the 
breeds  with  wool  not  possessed  of  marked  density  the  most. 
The  wool  of  the  former  is  not  only  dense,  but  the  wool 
fibers  are  glued  together  at  the  outer  ends  so  that  the  rain 
cannot  easily  penetrate  the  fleece.  In  the  more  open 
fleeces  it  may  reach  the  body  more  or  less,  and  the  chilling 
that  follows  may  result  in  lung  trouble  that  soon  ends 
fatally.  In  some  instances  these  storms  may  come  in 
the  night  and  cannot  be  certainly  forecasted,  but  when 
they  do,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  getting  the  sheep  under 
cover  with  the  breaking  of  the  dawn. 

When  succulent  food,  as  field  roots,  have  been  pro- 
vided, sudden  change  in  the  essential  character  of  the 
foods  can  be  avoided.  The  roots  will  provide,  in  part  at 
least,  the  succulence  furnished  previously  by  the  autumn 
pastures.  But  should  the  change  be  sudden  and  abrupt 
from  the  pastures  to  the  sheds,  in  the  absence  of  field  roots 
and  silage,  the  aim  should  be  to  feed  some  oilcake  or  a 
little  grain  with  considerable  bran  in  it  to  ward  off  the 
tendency  to  constipation  that  usually  accompanies  the 
feeding  of  all  dry  food. 

In  a  large  majority  of  instances,  partial  grazing  may 
be  continued  after  the  sheep  have  been  brought  into  win- 
ter quarters.  The  pastures  may  have  only  a  light  cover- 
ing of  snow,  or  in  certain  parts  they  may  be  bare.  While 
it  may  be  necessary  to  feed  the  sheep  morning  and  even- 


128  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ing,  continued  access  to  the  pastures  will  be  helpful  to 
the  sheep.  They  may  be  able  to  find  succulence  in  the 
grass  thus  gleaned  to  render  unnecessary  the  feeding  of 
roots,  ensilage,  bran  or  oilcake  in  order  to  keep  the  bowels 
in  tone. 

Ideal  conditions  for  wintering  ewes — The  ideal  loca- 
tion for  a  sheep  shed  calls  for  land  that  is  well  drained, 
protection  from  injurious  winds,  ample  opportunity  to 
furnish  yards  and  paddocks,  and  easy  and  convenient  ac- 
cess to  the  pastures.  It  may  not  be  possible  to  secure  all 
these  conditions  in  the  degree  to  which  they  may  be  de- 
sired, but  the  more  nearly  that  they  can  be  approximated, 
the  more  assured  will  be  the  success  that  may  be  looked 
for  (see  page  322).  In  the  matter  of  protection  the  breed- 
ing ewes  must  be  given  the  right  of  way,  as  males  and 
ewes  not  breeding  do  not  necessarily  call  for  conditions 
of  environment  equally  favorable  in  the  winter  season. 

The  ideal  shed  or  shelter  for  breeding  ewes  must 
have  in  it  several  divisions,  permanent  or  temporary,  for 
the  use  of  the  ewes  that  rear  lambs,  in  addition  to  other 
divisions  that  may  be  necessary  for  the  sheep  carried  over 
that  will  not  produce  lambs  (see  page  335).  This  is 
necessary  because  of  the  needs  of  the  ewes  and  also  of 
the  lambs  at  different  stages  of  development  in  the  latter. 
Where  the  flocks  are  small,  these  divisions  may  be  tem- 
porary, but  with  large  flocks  it  will  be  more  convenient 
to  have  them  permanent.  Where  the  ewes  and  lambs 
are  kept,  it  is  specially  important  to  have  an  abundance 
of  sunlight. 

The  ideal  yard  for  the  ewes  and  lambs  must  be  pro- 
tected. This  is  indispensable.  It  is  also,  in  a  sense,  a 
necessity  that  it  shall  be  located  on  the  sunny  side  of  the 
shed.  It  is  more  convenient  when  the  yards  have  divi- 
sions in  the  sheds,  but  this  is  not  always  necessary.  When 
it  is  necessary  these  can  be  made  by  the  use  of  movable 
materials  (see  page  21).  Paddocks  are  not  so  much 
necessary  for  breeding  ewes  as  for  rams,  as  the  paddocks 


FEEDING  AND   CARE   OF  BREEDING   EWES  129 

do  not  usually  furnish  grazing  at  that  season  when  the 
ewes  are  confined  to  the  sheds. 

Where  the  ewes  can  have  access  more  or  less  to  the 
pastures  in  the  winter  season,  the  advantage  from  hav- 
ing the  pastures  not  too  distant  will  be  at  once  appar- 
ent. To  have  a  winter  pasture  near  may  be  in  some  in- 
stances of  sufficient  importance  to  make  this  question  a 
subject  of  careful  thought.  The  more  stern  the  winter 
climate,  the  more  important  is  it  to  have  such  a  pasture 
near  the  sheds. 

The  grading  of  the  flock — When  the  flock  is  small,  as 
when,  for  instance,  it  does  not  number  more  than  20  to 
30  ewes,  and  when  these  are  all  strong  and  vigorous,  but 
little  grading  of  the  ewes  may  be  necessary.  But  it  is 
different  with  large  flocks.  In  any  event  the  aim  should 
be  to  put  the  ewe  lambs  retained  for  breeding  in  quarters 
separate  from  the  breeding  ewes,  as  the  food  best  suited 
to  the  needs  of  both  is  not  the  same,  although  in  some 
instances  the  difference  may  not  be  marked.  Where  many 
ewes  are  kept  for  breeding,  they  will  not  be  alike  in  age, 
in  the  amount  of  flesh  they  carry,  and  in  all-round  vigor. 
Where  such  is  the  case,  they  should  be  divided  into  lots 
that  will  admit  of  feeding  each  according  to  its  precise 
needs.  The  basis  of  the  grading  may  rest  upon  condition 
of  flesh  or  age  or  on  both.  As  the  winter  advances  and 
the  lambing  season  approaches,  the  necessity  for  regrad- 
ing  may  exist,  based  upon  the  advanced  condition  of 
pregnancy  or  the  opposite.  Of  course,  after  the  lambs 
begin  to  come,  further  regrading  may  be  necessary  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  ewes  and  lambs,  based  upon  the  age 
of  the  latter.  Some  grading  may  also  be  necessary  for 
the  rams,  as  when,  for  instance,  ram  lambs  and  older 
males  are  wintered  over,  the  food  requirements  for  the 
two  being  different.  Any  selected  for  feeding  for  the 
block  must  also  have  separate  quarters. 

Where  the  flocks  are  large,  the  divisions,  or  some 
of  them  that  make  such  grading  possible,  should  be  per- 


I3O  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

manent.  Where  the  flock  is  small,  permanent  divisions 
are  less  necessary.  In  any  case  more  or  less  use  may  be 
made  of  the  feed  racks  used  in  feeding  to  increase  the 
number  of  the  pens  that  may  be  called  for.  This  should 
be  kept  in  mind  when  the  movable  racks  are  being  made, 
and  they  should  be  constructed  accordingly.  With  in- 
crease in  the  permanent  divisions  comes  the  necessity  for 
increase  in  the  temporary  or  permanent  divisions  in  the 
yards. 

The  limit  of  the  number  of  sheep  that  can  be  success- 
fully kept  in  one  division  of  the  shed  cannot  be  given  ex- 
cept by  approximation,  as  more  of  some  breeds  may  be 
kept  together  without  hazard  than  of  other  breeds.  The 
fine  wool  breeds  can  be  kept  in  larger  flocks  than  other 
breeds.  It  would  seem  safe  to  say  that  the  percentage  of 
loss  in  sheep  increases  more  or  less  with  increase  in  the 
size  of  the  flock. 

When  a  small  flock  of  sheep  is  kept  on  the  farm,  say 
20  to  30  head,  the  percentage  of  loss  under  normal  con- 
ditions should  be  practically  eliminated.  Except  with  the 
fine  wooled  breeds,  the  aim  should  be  to  keep  not  more 
than  say  50  breeding  ewes  in  the  division  of  the  sheep 
house. 

Food  prior  to  the  time  of  lambing — For  all  classes  of 
sheep,  but  especially  for  breeding  ewes,  the  fodders  fed 
should  be  possessed  of  the  following  characteristics:  (i) 
They  should  be  of  fine  growth  and  leafy.  To  have  them 
thus  calls  for  special  care  in  growing  them.  Corn  and 
sorghum  fodders,  for  instance,  should  be  sown  more 
thickly,  to  insure  fine  growth,  when  grown  to  feed  sheep 
than  when  grown  to  feed  cattle.  The  finer  varieties  of 
clover  also  should  be  sought  rather  than  the  coarser.  (2) 
They  should  be  cut  early  and  well  cured.  Sheep  will  not 
consume  woody  material  in  the  form  of  dry  fodder,  hence 
an  early  stage  of  cutting  is  necessary  and  also  careful  cur- 
ing to  prevent  a  woody  condition  of  the  fodder  and  to  pre- 
serve its  palatability.  (3)  They  should  include  variety. 


FEEDING   AND   CARE   OF   BREEDING    EWES  13! 

Sheep  more  than  other  quadrupeds  seem  to  crave  variety 
summer  and  winter.  Though  alfalfa  of  fine  growth 
should  form  the  bulk  of  the  diet  fed  to  them,  they  will  at 
the  same  time  consume  considerable  quantities  of  well- 
cured  wheat  straw. 

Leguminous  fodders  have  highest  adaptation  for  all 
classes  of  sheep,  but  especially  for  pregnant  ewes.  No 
class  of  roughage  probably  is  superior  to  alfalfa,  grown 
thickly,  alsike  clover  and  also  the  common  red  clover. 
Hay  produced  by  the  common  vetch  is  excellent.  That 
from  the  sand  vetch  is  not  quite  so  good.  Hay  from  the 
Canada  field  pea  and  oats  is  excellent.  That  from  the 
cowpea  is  good  if  well  cured.  Hay  from  millet  cut  when 
the  earliest  heads  begin  to  tint,  and  cured  in  the  cock,  an- 
swers well  to  feed  once  a  day,  but  it  should  not  form  the 
sole  fodder  for  any  long  period.  Hay  from  Russian  brome 
grass,  being  leafy,  is  one  of  the  best  fodders  furnished  by 
the  grasses.  Hay  composed  of  timothy  and  clover,  grown 
thickly  and  cut  early  is  very  good,  but  that  from  timothy 
alone,  if  coarse,  and  especially  if  cut  late,  is  not  well 
suited  to  the  needs  of  sheep. 

Pea  straw  well  cured  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list 
of  the  varieties  of  straw.  When  not  coarse,  cut  promptly 
on  maturing  and  cured  without  exposure  to  rain,  it  fur- 
nishes food  that  sheep  greatly  relish,  but  if  cut  late  and 
exposed  to  heavy  rain,  it  is  not  of  much  value  as  fodder. 
Next  to  pea  straw  in  value  is  that  obtained  from  oats 
The  value  of  straw  furnished  by  any  of  the  cereals  is 
much  dependent  on  the  early  stage  of  maturity  at  which 
it  is  cut.  Bean  straw  is  excellent  when  well  saved,  but 
is  usually  limited  in  supply.  Rye  straw  is  probably  the 
least  valuable  straw  for  sheep  because  of  its  woody  char- 
acter. Corn  fodder  finely  grown  and  well  preserved  an- 
swers well  as  a  part  of  the  fodder  ration  during  the  late 
autumn  and  midwinter  months,  but  corn  stover  is  not  so 
good  because  of  its  coarseness.  Finely  grown  sorghum 


132  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

will  be  relished,  but  much  waste  will  follow  from  feeding 
sorghum  that  is  coarse. 

Before  the  lambing  season  it  is  not  usual  to  feed 
roughage  more  than  twice  a  day  in  the  form  of  hay.  But 
the  practice  is  commendable  which  adds  straw  of  the 
cereals  for  the  noon  feed.  What  is  left  of  this  in  the  feed 
racks  should  be  used  as  litter  to  spread  over  the  sheds  or 
yards.  It  may  be  necessary  to  supplement  this  with  other 
litter,  as  a  comfortable  and  dry  bed  is  greatly  conducive 
to  the  welfare  of  sheep  in  winter.  In  some  instances  corn 
fodder,  sorghum  fodder  or  Kafir  corn  fodder  is  strewn 
on  the  frozen  ground  for  the  noon  feed,  that  the  sheep 
may  get  food  and  exercise  while  consuming  it.  Under 
other  conditions,  it  is  fed  in  racks,  usually  out  of  doors. 

In  the  larger  portion  of  the  United  States,  succulence 
can  only  be  furnished  for  sheep  in  two  forms — as  field 
roots  or  as  silage.  But  in  areas  far  southward,  they  may 
graze  during  much  of  the  winter  on  foods  sown  to  pro- 
vide such  grazing,  as  rape  and  kale,  and  the  same  is  also 
true  of  the  Pacific  slope  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains. 
Field  roots  are  more  suitable  than  corn  ensilage,  but  in 
the  absence  of  the  former  the  latter  will  be  materially 
helpful.  Succulence  in  some  form  is,  in  a  sense,  a  neces- 
sity, and  the  aim  should  be  to  provide  it  on  the  arable 
farm.  In  its  absence,  it  is  usually  advantageous  to  feed 
bran  or  oil  cake  along  with  the  grain  fed.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  feed  a  large  amount  of  succulence  before  the 
lambing  season,  not  more  than  three  or  four  pounds  per 
day  of  roots  or  silage;  the  latter  must  be  free  from 
mold,  or  abortion  and  other  ills  may  follow.  Some  feed- 
ers use  more  roots,  but  it  has  been  noticed  that  when 
large  quantities  are  fed  along  with  clover  hay,  the  lambs 
are  large  but  deficient  in  vitality  at  birth.  This  is  less 
apparent  when  straw  is  used  freely  as  a  part  of  the  fod- 
der ration.  The  roots  are  sliced  or  pulped,  as  a  rule,  be- 
fore feeding  them,  and  are  most  frequently  fed  directly, 
and  without  admixture,  but  in  some  instances  grain  is 


FEEDING  AND   CARE  OF  BREEDING   EWES  133 

fed  at  the  same  time.  It  is  scarcely  practicable  to  feed 
silage  to  a  small  flock  of  sheep,  unless  it  is  being  fed  also 
to  other  stock  at  the  same  time,  as  it  cannot  be  kept  in 
good  condition,  because  of  the  small  amount  fed. 

When  the  roughage  is  of  excellent  quality,  as  when 
good  clover  is  fed  and  when  field  roots  are  fed  at  the 
same  time,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  feed  much  grain, 
or  indeed  any,  until  the  lambing  season  is  near  at  hand ; 
but  as  ewes  are  ordinarily  fed,  they  will  profit  from  a 
small  grain  ration,  say,  not  more  than  one-half  to  one 
pound  per  day,  from  the  time  that  they  are  brought  to  the 
sheds,  or  even  before  that  time  should  any  loss  of  condi- 
tion be  apparent.  Almost  any  kind  of  grain  will  answer, 
although  when  the  roughage  is  non-leguminous  corn 
should  not  be  fed.  Oats  will  answer  the  best  of  all  cereals, 
should  these  be  fed  without  admixture.  Some  wheat  bran 
or  oilcake,  say  20  per  cent  of  bran  or  10  per  cent  of  oil- 
cake, will  aid  much  in  warding  off  constipation,  that  great 
menace  to  the  well  being  of  sheep  in  winter  when  on  a 
dry  diet.  It  would  probably  be  correct  to  say  that  more 
of  the  troubles  that  afflict  sheep  in  winter  may  be  traced  to 
this  source  than  to  any  other  single  cause. 

Exercise  for  pregnant  ewes — With  all  animals  it 
would  seem  to  be  a  law  governing  reproduction  that,  if 
the  progeny  are  to  be  vigorous  and  strong,  dams  which 
bear  them  must  have  ample  exercise  while  pregnant. 
Ample  exercise,  however,  is  a  question  of  degree  in  exer- 
cise as  applied  to  the  various  breeds.  Modification  of  in- 
herent characters  may  so  change  the  necessities  of  a  breed 
that  a  much  less  degree  of  exercise  will  suffice  than  would 
have  been  enough  at  one  time  in  the  history  of  the  breed. 
But  some  exercise  for  the  dams  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  well-being  of  the  lambs  which  they  bear. 

Sheep  call  for  more  exercise  relatively  than  other 
farm  animals,  unless  it  be  horses.  When  feeding  in  the 
pastures,  they  are  continually  on  the  move.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  know  how  far  they  thus  travel  in  a  day. 


134  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

It  would  seem  safe  to  say  that,  because  of  this  inherent 
feature  of  their  constitution,  it  would  not  be  easy  to  give 
pregnant  ewes  too  much  exercise. 

When  not  sufficiently  exercised  the  lambs  come  weak 
and  the  amount  of  nursing  and  care  to  enable  them  to 
survive  is  greatly  increased.  The  lambs  produced  by 
sheep  that  are  seldom  housed  are  on  their  feet,  strong  and 
vigorous,  within  a  few  minutes  of  birth,  while  those  from 
ewes  over-housed  may  not  live  but  for  a  short  period. 
There  is  also  trouble  frequently  with  the  ewes  at  the  time 
of  yeaning.  But  it  must  not  be  understood  that  ewes 
well  managed  cannot  in  any  instances  be  confined  to 
the  yards  and  sheds  the  entire  winter  without  producing 
the  troubles  indicated.  Experience  has  shown  this  can 
be  done,  but  experience  has  also  shown  that  it  is  not  a 
good  practice  to  follow. 

How  to  secure  the  necessary  exercise  for  pregnant 
ewes  may  be  somewhat  of  a  problem  under  some  condi- 
tions, as,  for  instance,  when  the  fields  are  covered  for 
months  in  succession  with  deep  snow.  If  confined  en- 
tirely to  the  yards,  the  lambs  will  be  lacking  in  vitality 
more  or  less,  and  if  the.  ewes  have  been  in  poorly  venti- 
lated quarters  much  of  the  time,  the  evil  will  be  greatly 
aggravated.  To  encourage  the  ewes  to  take  exercise, 
various  devices  have  been  resorted  to,  as  making  one  or 
more  roads  with  a  snow  plow,  and  strewing  a  little  hay 
along  these  occasionally,  or  giving  food  in  racks  or  other- 
wise in  some  sheltered  spot  not  too  near  the  shed.  When 
the  sheep  can  have  access  to  the  fields  for  any  consider- 
able portion  of  the  winter  season,  such  devices  to  en- 
courage them  to  take  exercise  will  not  be  necessary.  Even 
though  they  obtain  but  little  nutriment  while  they  roam 
over  the  bare  portions  of  the  fields,  they  are  getting  the 
necessary  exercise. 

Where  the  ground  is  usually  bare  more  or  less  during 
the  winter,  the  owner  should  aim  to  have  a  reserve  grass 
pasture  with  a  thick  firm  turf  on  which  the  ewes  may  find 


FEEDING   AND    CARE   OF  BREEDING   EWES  135 

grazing  when  the  snow  is  absent.  The  hazard  from  eat- 
ing frozen  grass  will  not  be  present  as  it  is  in  the  autumn, 
for  the  sheep  do  not  leave  the  sheds  to  graze  until  they 
have  taken  their  morning  meal. 

Caring  for  ewes  at  the  lambing  season — When  ewes 
produce  their  lambs  on  the  pastures,  the  problem  of  car- 
ing for  them  is  much  simplified.  In  good  weather  it  may 
consist  mainly  in  visiting  the  flock  two  or  three  times  a 
day,  to  make  sure  that  all  is  going  well.  Should  the 
weather  be  stormy,  however,  the  problem  is  much  more 
complicated.  It  may  be  necessary  to  furnish  shelter  for 
the  ewes  with  newly  born  lambs.  If  more  than  temporary 
aid  is  wanted  for  either  ewes  or  lambs,  both  should  be 
brought  to  the  sheds.  If  a  cold  rain  is  threatened  both 
ewes  and  lambs  should  be  housed  for  the  time  being,  as 
no  exposure  will  bring  harm  to  the  lambs  as  quickly  as 
exposure  to  cold  rain,  which  at  once  finds  its  way  through 
the  short  wool  to  the  skin. 

Where  the  flock  is  large,  a  lambing  pen  is  necessary, 
which  should  have  in  it  a  number  of  divisions,  that  may 
be  permanent,  or  temporary,  or  both.  The  object  is  to 
keep  the  ewes  and  their  young  apart  from  the  others  un- 
til the  lambs  have  been  well  started  in  life.  Another  plan 
encircles  the  ewe  and  her  lambs  with  a  crate  without  re- 
moving her  from  the  sheds.  This  is  done  before  or  im- 
mediately after  the  lamb  is  born.  The  ewe  thus  managed 
will  fret  less  than  the  one  removed  to  the  lambing  pen, 
as  in  the  former  instance  practically  no  change  is  made 
in  the  environment.  When  taken  to  the  lambing  pen  the 
removal  should  be  made  when  practicable  two  or  three 
days  before  the  lambs  are  expected  (see  page  336). 

If  some  ewes  are  already  there,  the  ewes  so  removed 
will  be  less  disturbed  by  the  change.  The  objection  to 
the  use  of  crates  as  outlined  above  is  the  amount  of  space 
that  they  use,  which  in  close  quarters  cannot  be  spared. 

During  the  first  days  after  lambing  food  should  be 
given  to  the  ewes  with  much  caution.  Soon  after  the 


136  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ewe  has  been  delivered  of  her  lamb  or  lambs,  she  should 
be  given  water  from  which  the  chill  has  been  removed. 
No  change  in  the  diet  is  called  for  other  than  that  which 
relates  to  quantity.  No  harm  can  come  to  the  ewes  from 
taking  all  the  fodder  that  they  will  eat  such  as  they  are 
accustomed  to,  but  grain  and  field  roots  should  be  fed 
sparingly  at  first  lest  the  milk  flow  should  be  over-stim- 
ulated. With  gradual  increase,  the  ewe  may  usually  be 
put  on  what  may  be  termed  full  feeding  for  a  breeding 
ewe  within  7  to  10  days  from  the  birth  of  her  lambs,  and 
sometimes  even  sooner. 

Close  attention  should  be  given  to  the  udder  of  a 
newly  delivered  ewe.  In  some  instances  it  may  be  more 
or  less  inflamed  when  the  lambs  are  born.  In  others,  as 
when  the  milk  flow  is  very  plentiful,  the  lamb  may  take 
food  from  only  one  teat.  In  yet  other  instances,  as  when 
but  little  milk  is  present,  the  teats  are  made  sore  by  the 
biting  of  the  lambs  in  trying  to  get  food.  Frequent  bath- 
ing with  warm  water  and  then  anointing  with  some 
soothing  unguent,  as  sweet  oil,  will  prove  helpful  to  an 
inflamed  udder.  Milking  out  occasionally  the  side  of  the 
udder  neglected  by  the  lamb,  or  what  is  better,  to  allow 
a  needy  lamb  to  help  itself  for  a  few  times,  will  remove 
the  difficulty.  When  the  teats  are  thus  made  sore,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  allow  the  lambs  to  nurse  the  ewe  only  a 
few  times  each  day  for  a  time.  Should  the  wool  around 
the  udder  make  it  difficult  for  the  lamb  to  find  the  teat, 
it  should  be  clipped  away  to  the  extent  of  removing  the 
obstruction. 

As  the  number  of  the  lambs  increases,  such  increase 
brings  with  it  more  or  less  of  diversity  in  age,  and  to  meet 
the  needs  of  these,  the  necessity  for  division  increases 
accordingly.  The  aim  should  be  to  have  the  lambs  which 
occupy  each  apartment  as  near  of  an  age  as  may  be  found 
practicable  under  the  conditions.  This,  however,  becomes 
less  important  as  the  lambs  grow  older.  After  the  first 


FEEDING   AND   CARE   OF  BREEDING   EWES  137 

3  or  4  weeks  they,  and  also  their  dams,  may  be  given 
practically  the  same  rations. 

Food  subsequently  to  lambing — After  the  lambs  are 
a  few  days  old,  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  dams  shall 
milk  freely,  to  stimulate  growth  in  the  former,  as  no  sub- 
stitute can  be  found  equal  to  the  milk  of  the  dam  to  stim- 
ulate growth  in  the  lambs.  To  accomplish  this  all  the 
food  fed  should  be  of  good  quality  and  ample  for  the  need 
of  the  ewes. 

If  the  roughage  provided  for  winter  use  is  not  equal 
in  suitability  for  producing  milk,  that  which  is  most  suit- 
able for  such  a  purpose  should  be  saved,  if  possible,  for 
feeding  after  the  lambs  have  come.  If  the  fodder  is  of 
the  same  kind  and  yet  differs  in  quality,  that  of  the  best 
quality  should  be  saved  for  feeding  at  such  a  time.  For 
this  stage  of  the  feeding  leguminous  fodders  will  be  found 
the  most  suitable  and  three  feeds  rather  than  two  should 
be  given  daily. 

Under  no  conditions  is  the  free  feeding  of  succulent 
roots  more  helpful  to  sheep  than  when  they  are  nursing 
their  lambs,  and  under  no  conditions  of  feeding  should  it 
be  fed  more  freely  to  them.  Where  the  supply  is  abun- 
dant they  may  be  given  several  pounds  daily  in  the  sliced 
or  pulped  form.  For  spring  feeding  mangels  or  sugar 
beets  are  very  suitable,  but  any  kind  of  roots  well  pre- 
served will  serve  the  purpose.  Corn  ensilage  is  also  good 
when  of  good  quality  and  judiciously  fed.  It  must  be 
conceded,  however,  that  it  is  not  equal  to  field  roots  for 
such  feeding.  When  fed  in  large  quantities  to  ewes  giv- 
ing milk,  especially  when  rich  in  practically  matured  grain, 
it  has  been  claimed  that  it  tends  to  induce  a  somewhat 
heated  or  feverish  condition  of  the  system.  But  when  fed 
in  moderation,  that  is  to  say  to  the  extent  of  not  more 
than  two  or  three  pounds  daily,  especially  in  the  absence 
of  field  roots,  it  has  been  found  to  be  highly  satisfactory. 
Some  successful  feeders  make  it  substitute  the  noon  feed 
of  hay  rather  than  feed  it  morning  or  evening.  Corn  sil- 


138  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

age  is  more  in  favor  as  a  food  for  sheep  that  are  being 
fattened  than  for  breeding  ewes. 

The  concentrates  fed  may  include  any  of  the  cereals, 
but  to  keep  the  ration  in  approximate  balance  the  con- 
centrates should  be  chosen  with  a  view  to  supplement 
what  may  be  lacking  in  the  roughage.  As  leguminous 
fodders  are  more  commonly  fed  than  other  fodders  to 
ewes  that  are  nursing  their  lambs,  it  is  in  order  to  feed 
more  of  the  grains  rich  in  carbohydrates  with  such  fod- 
ders. But  should  the  fodder  consist  largely  of  such  food 
as  fodder  corn  and  corn  silage,  the  grain  should  be  fed 
rich  in  protein.  When  leguminous  fodders  are  fed,  from 
say  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  ration  may  be  corn,  but  when 
opposite  in  character,  bran  should  be  fed  freely  with  the 
grain.  In  the  absence  of  field  roots,  wheat  bran  or  oil- 
cake, or  both,  should  be  fed  to  keep  the  digestion  in  tone. 
A  mixture  of  grains  is  always  more  relished  than  one  kind 
of  grain,  at  least  under  prolonged  feeding.  Along  with 
leguminous  fodders  the  following  rations  will  be  found 
suitable:  (i)  Corn  or  barley,  wheat  bran,  oilcake,  in  the 
proportions  of  five,  four  and  one  parts  by  weight;  (2) 
oats,  wheat  bran  and  oilcake  in  the  proportions  of  six, 
three  and  one  parts;  (3)  oats  and  oilcake  nine  and  one 
parts. 

The  amount  of  grain  to  feed  is  influenced  by  the 
amount  of  the  field  roots  or  corn  ensilage  that  is  fed. 
With  increase  in  the  proportion  of  these,  there  may  be 
decrease  in  the  amount  of  grain  fed.  While  the  supply  of 
the  grain  should  be  liberal,  it  will  seldom  be  necessary 
to  feed  more  than  two  pounds  of  grain  per  animal  daily 
for  prolonged  feeding.  The  grain  is  fed  whole.  When 
much  wheat  bran  is  fed,  it  will  be  more  readily  consumed 
when  fed  on  sliced  or  pulped  roots,  as  sheep,  especially 
when  young,  do  not  usually  show  great  fondness  for  bran. 
The  grain  is  commonly  fed  in  two  feeds  daily,  and  it  is  not 
necessary  to  grind  it  except  in  the  case  of  aged  ewes 
whose  teeth  show  signs  of  failing.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to 


FEEDING   AND    CARE   OF  BREEDING   EWES  139 

cut  the  fodder,  as  a  rule,  although  cutting  a  portion  of  it 
and  mixing  it  with  grain  may  insure  a  greater  consump- 
tion of  the  fodder. 

From  the  sheds  to  the  pastures — The  change  from 
the  sheds  to  the  pastures  should  always  be  made  with 
more  or  less  caution,  lest  the  digestion  of  the  ewes  and 
also  of  the  lambs  be  unduly  disturbed.  A  sudden  change 
from  all  dry  feed  to  all  succulent  food  such  as  the  early 
spring  pastures  furnish  is  almost  certain  to  result  in  more 
or  less  scouring,  and  it  will  take  away  their  appetite  for 
other  foods.  The  liability  to  such  scouring  will  be  greatly 
reduced  if  the  ewes,  accompanied  by  their  lambs,  and  in- 
deed all  classes  of  sheep,  are  given  access  when  spring 
grazing  begins  to  pastures  that  have  not  been  grazed 
closely  in  the  autumn,  so  that  they  cannot  avoid  consum- 
ing some  of  the  dead  grass  while  they  graze.  The  dead 
grass  counteracts  the  tendency  to  scouring  caused  by  the 
fresh  grass. 

When  ewes  with  lambs  are  first  turned  out  to  graze, 
the  time  for  grazing,  not  long  at  the  first,  should  be  grad- 
ually extended  until  they  remain  out  all  the  day.  The 
period  covered  by  the  change  from  all  dry  food  to  graz- 
ing only  will  be  determined  by  such  conditions  as  the  kind 
of  the  grazing  and  its  plentifulness.  The  change  should 
be  made  as  quickly  as  it  can  be  made  without  injury  to 
the  flock,  as  grazing  usually  furnishes  cheaper  food  than 
cured  fodder  and  grain.  When  grazing  begins,  the  re- 
duction in  the  food  in  the  sheds  properly  commences  with 
the  roughage.  There  should  be  no  anxiety  to  put  the 
sheep  on  grazing  until  they  have  first  taken  a  full  morn- 
ing meal.  The  reduction  in  the  roughage  fed  should  keep 
pace  with  the  disinclination  of  the  sheep  to  consume  it. 
With  increase  in  the  pasture  consumed  there  should  also 
be  corresponding  decrease  in  the  succulent  food,  as  field 
roots,  if  such  is  being  fed.  The  grass,  of  course,  provides 
the  succulence,  and  in  a  cheaper  form  than  it  can  be 
furnished  from  any  other  source. 


140 


FEEDING  AND   CARE   OF  BREEDING   EWES  14! 

The  reduction  in  the  feeding  of  grain  should  be  more 
gradual  than  the  reduction  in  the  roughage  fed.  The  rea- 
sons for  this  are:  (i)  That  shrinkage  which  sometimes 
results  from  the  lax  condition  of  the  digestion  caused  by 
the  fresh  grass  is  counteracted  more  or  less  by  the  grain 
fed;  (2)  that  sheep  will  eat  grain  for  a  much  longer  period 
than  they  will  continue  to  eat  roughage ;  (3)  the  lambs 
are  thus  given  an  opportunity  to  share  in  what  is  even 
more  helpful  to  them  than  to  the  ewes.  But  when  the 
pastures  have  become  abundant  and  when  the  sheep  have 
become  quite  accustomed  to  the  change,  it  is  doubtful 
if  the  further  feeding  of  grain  will  be  profitable.  Reduc- 
tion should  first  begin  with  the  evening  feed  of  grain, 
for  a  reason  that  will  be  obvious.  The  quantity  is 
gradually  reduced  until  none  is  fed,  and  then  reduction 
should  be  similarly  carried  on  with  the  morning  feed. 

A  further  important  advantage  resulting  from  a  grad- 
ual change  from  the  sheds  to  the  pastures  is  found  in  the 
protection  against  exposure  to  hurtful  influences  that 
may  arise  from  the  lying  of  the  lambs  on  the  ground  while 
yet  cold  and  damp.  They  may  thus  be  given  the  benefit 
of  well-bedded  yards  to  lie  on  until  the  ground  has  been 
warmed  by  the  advance  of  spring. 

Management  when  on  pasture — Ordinarily  no  addi- 
tional food  is  needed  for  the  dams  when  on  pasture,  after 
the  change  from  yard  to  field  conditions  has  been  com- 
pleted. This,  of  course,  is  on  the  assumption  that  the 
grazing  is  sufficient.  But  there  may  be  instances  when 
it  may  be  desirable  to  feed  such  food  as  oilcake  as  a  means 
of  speedily  adding  fertility  to  the  land.  And  there  may 
be  instances  when  it  is  desirable  to  sell  the  lambs  as  soon 
as  they  can  be  made  ready  for  the  market,  and  also  the 
dams  as  quickly  as  possible  thereafter.  In  such  instances 
the  feeding  of  grain  to  the  dams  on  pasture  would  not 
only  be  justifiable  but  commendable.  Whether  it  will 
prove  profitable  to  feed  grain  subsequently  to  the  wean- 


142  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ing  of  the  lambs  will  depend  upon  conditions,  as  is  shown 
below. 

Of  course,  it  would  be  possible  to  supplement  the 
grazing  by  feeding  such  soiling  food  as  alfalfa,  corn  or 
sorghum.  For  such  a  use  alfalfa  has  special  adaptation, 
especially  in  those  areas  where  it  is  irrigated  and  would 
as  a  result  produce  many  cuttings  in  a  season.  When 
the  conditions  of  cultivation  become  intensive  in  such 
areas  and  labor  sufficiently  plentiful,  such  a  system  of 
feeding  sheep  may  be  introduced.  In  the  meantime,  how- 
ever, but  little  soiling  food  is  fed  sheep  except  in  the  case 
of  those  that  are  maintained  for  some  special  use,  as  in 
the  case  of  stock  rams  or  sheep  that  are  being  fitted  for 
exhibition.  When  soiling  food  is  fed  it  should  be  put  into 
racks  to  prevent  waste.  Some  foods,  as  alfalfa  and  clover, 
when  fed  green,  should  first  be  wilted  to  avoid  danger 
from  bloat. 

Under  existing  conditions  it  has  proved  cheaper  to 
supplement  the  grass  pastures  by  growing  other  pas- 
tures with  this  end  in  view.  Nearly  all  the  cereals  may 
be  used  to  provide  such  grazing,  whether  sown  alone  or 
in  certain  combinations  (see  page  170).  The  great  sav- 
ing in  the  labor  involved  has  made  this  method  of  pro- 
viding supplemental  food  for  ewes  very  much  more 
popular  than  the  method  that  supplies  it  in  the  form  of 
soiling  food. 

Management  when  weaning  the  lambs — When  lambs 
are  weaned,  the  method  which  takes  them  quite  away 
from  the  ewes  without  permitting  them  to  come  together 
again  is  considered  preferable  to  gradual  weaning.  Usu- 
ally all  the  lambs  in  a  flock  are  weaned  at  the  time,  but 
there  may  be  instances  when  it  would  be  profitable  to 
separate  the  younger  lambs  with  their  dams  and  allow 
them  to  take  milk  from  their  dams  for  a  few  weeks  longer. 
This  is  desirable  in  proportion  as  the  lambing  season  has 
been  prolonged.  The  drying  off  of  the  ewes  will  be  more 
quickly  accomplished  if  the  ewes  and  lambs  are  separated 


FEEDING    AND    CARE   OF   BREEDING    EWES  143 

so  far  that  the  bleating  of  the  lambs  will  not  be  heard  by 
the  ewes.  Such  bleating  when  heard  keeps  in  active  play 
the  maternal  instinct,  which  tends  to  the  continuance  of 
milk  secretion. 

The  udders  of  the  dams  should  be  promptly  cared 
for  at  such  a  time.  The  milk  should  be  partially  but  not 
wholly  withdrawn  from  the  udders  as  often  as  may  be 
necessary  for  the  comfort  of  the  ewes  and  the  safety  of 
their  udders.  The  frequency  with  which  they  should  be 
milked  and  the  number  of  the  milkings  called  for  will 
vary  with  the  conditions.  As  a  rule  the  udders  should  be 
examined  on  the  second  day  after  the  lambs  have  been 
removed,  or  on  the  third  day  at  the  latest.  The  examina- 
tion will  show  that  some  of  the  ewes  are  so  far  dry  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  draw  any  milk  from  them.  It  is  not 
necessary,  of  course,  to  examine  the  udders  of  these  again. 
Some  may  call  for. the  removal  of  a  little  milk,  but  so 
little  that  it  is  evident  these  will  not  require  a  second 
milking,  and  they,  along  with  the  former,  should  be  sep- 
arated from  the  other  portion  of  the  flock  if  practicable. 
The  udders  of  some  may  show  much  distention,  and  from 
these  a  large  portion  of  the  milk  should  be  withdrawn. 
The  second  examination  need  not  be  made  for  three  or 
four  days  as  a  rule,  when  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove 
more  milk.  In  but  rare  instances  is  a  third  examination 
necessary. 

No  sooner  have  the  lambs  been  removed  than  the 
ewes  should  be  put  upon  a  spare  diet  until  they  are 
dried.  The  poorest  grazing  on  the  farm  will  be  the  best 
suited  for  the  purpose.  Where  such  grazing  is  not  to  be 
had,  the  ewes  may  be  yarded  and  given  dry  roughage 
only.  The  flockmaster  should  exercise  much  care  when 
drying  off  the  ewes,  as  neglect  at  such  a  time  may 
ruin  the  udders,  which  means  that  ewes  thus  affected  can- 
not be  used  for  future  breeding.  The  best  milkers  in  the 
flock,  and,  therefore,  the  best  lamb  raisers,  are  most  in 
danger  of  such  mishap. 


144  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

Management  of  ewes  to  be  discarded — The  weaning 
season  furnishes  an  opportune  time  for  determining  on 
which  member  of  the  flock  shall  be  discarded.  There 
may  be  instances  when  these  should  be  sold  at  once.  This 
will  be  in  order,  first,  with  ewes  that  suckled  early  lambs, 
and  that  are  as  a  result  of  heavy  grain  feeding  in  a  con- 
dition of  good  flesh  when  the  lambs  are  weaned ;  and, 
second,  when  at  the  time  of  the  autumn  weaning  of  the 
lambs,  aged  ewes  are  to  be  discarded  in  the  absence  of 
such  grazing  as  rape  on  which  to  fatten  them.  The  lat- 
ter when  sold  thus  may  bring  only  a  low  price,  and  yet 
it  may  DC  more  profitable  to  sell  them  thus  than  to  try 
to  fatten  them. 

Ewes  are  usually  in  a  somewhat  lean  condition  at  the 
weaning  season,  and  they  are  not  easily  fattened  when 
so  old  that  their  teeth  have  begun  to  fail.  No  method  of 
making  them  ready  for  the  market  has  been  found  supe- 
rior to  that  which  fattens  them  on  rape  pasture.  Such  a 
pasture  well  advanced  in  growth  should  fit  them  for  the 
market  in,  say  two  months  from  the  time  when  they  are 
given  access  to  it.  It  is  not  really  essential  that  grain 
shall  be  given  to  them  at  the  same  time,  although  in  some 
instances  it  may  hasten  the  fattening  process. 

Usually  no  profit  would  result  from  carrying  such 
ewes  on  into  the  winter  and  fattening  them  at  that  sea- 
son. The  cost  or  value  of  the  food  would  usually  be  more 
than  the  advance  in  the  return  that  would  accrue  from 
the  fattening  process.  Aged  ewes,  if  fattened  thus,  should 
have  the  grain  ground  for  them.  Should  the  ewes  be  dis- 
carded for  any  other  reason  than  that  of  advanced  age, 
it  may  prove  more  profitable  to  carry  them  on  into  the 
winter  before  disposing  of  them. 

Attentions  miscellaneous  in  character — Attention 
should  be  given  to  many  details  of  management,  all  of 
which  it  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate.  Prominent 
among  these,  however,  are  the  following:  (i)  The  ven- 
tilating of  the  sheds;  (2)  the  bedding  of  the  sheds  and 


FEEDING   AND    CARE   OF   BREEDING    EWES  145 

yards;  (3)  special  feeding  for  ewes  whose  teeth  are  fail- 
ing ;  (4)  protection  from  cold  storms  spring  and  autumn ; 
(5)  tagging  and  trimming  when  necessary;  (6)  paring 
the  feet;  (7)  dipping  for  ticks;  (8)  the  shed  space  called 
for;  and  (9)  the  injury  from  close  housing. 

The  methods  of  providing  ventilation  are  discussed 
later  (see  page  339).  It  is  the  necessity  for  ventilation 
that  is  now  emphasized.  When  sheep  are  kept  in  open 
sheds,  this  danger  will  not  exist.  It  occurs  only  in  cold 
climates  and  where  the  doors  are  kept  closed  at  night. 
When  thus  confined  in  a  shed  with  a  low  loft,  the  air 
becomes  very  impure.  They  are  forced  more  or  less  to 
breathe  air  that  has  been  previously  inhaled  and  that  is 
strongly  impregnated  with  ammonia  from  the  droppings. 

The  sheds  and  yards  as  well  should  have  enough  of 
bedding  to  keep  them  dry  as  far  as  this  may  be  practi- 
cable. It  may  not  be  possible  to  keep  the  yards  in  such  a 
condition  during  every  day  of  the  winter,  but  it  is  impera- 
tive that  the  sheds  shall  be  kept  thus.  When  the  sheep 
are  given  straw  as  a  part  of  the  ration,  the  uneaten  por- 
tion may  be  used  as  bedding,  and  enough  may  be  obtained 
in  some  instances  from  this  source.  The  aim  should  be 
to  supply  bedding  in  small  quantities  and  frequently 
rather  than  in  large  quantities  and  seldom,  as  the  bed  is 
kept  more  fresh  and  free  from  odors  when  supplied  by 
the  first  method.  Damp  beds  are  specially  harmful  to 
young  lambs,  and  the  same  is  true  of  beds  that  are  foul. 
The  proper  bedding  of  the  yards  is  not  an  easy  proposi- 
tion where  the  rainfall  is  abundant  in  winter,  because  of 
the  amount  of  the  litter  called  for.  Under  such  condi- 
tions the  yards  should  be  restricted  to  the  smallest  dimen- 
sions compatible  with  the  needs  of  the  flock.  Land  plas- 
ter, dry  earth  and  even  sifted  coal  ashes  may  be  used  with 
profit  in  dusting  the  manure  occasionally. 

It  may  be  desired  in  some  instances  to  carry  breed- 
ing ewes  through  the  winter  to  furnish  lambs  after  they 
have  lost  or  partially  lost  their  teeth.  This  may  be  a  legit- 


146  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

imate  desire  when  the  owner  of  a  small  flock  of  pure 
breds  is  anxious  to  increase  the  number.  It  is  important 
that  such  ewes  be  maintained  in  reasonably  good  condi- 
tion, or  the  lambs  which  they  produce  will  not  be  prop- 
erly maintained.  The  aim  should  be  to  provide  food  for 
these  easy  of  mastication,  as,  for  instance,  field  roots 
pulped  or  sliced,  or  ensilage,  finely  chaffed  fodders  and 
ground  grain.  It  is  preferable  to  feed  these  mixed  rather 
than  separate.  Valuable  ewes  may  be  thus  maintained 
for  even  two  winters  after  they  would  fail  under  ordinary 
conditions  of  feeding. 

While  some  storms  are,  of  course,  more  or  less  hurt- 
ful to  sheep  at  all  seasons,  they  are  specially  harmful  in 
the  autumn  and  the  spring,  hence  every  reasonable  effort 
should  be  made  to  protect  them  from  such  exposure.  In 
summer  the  rain  is  warm,  but  in  autumn  and  spring  it 
sometimes  falls  with  a  temperature  almost  as  cold  as  ice. 
Long-continued  exposure  to  such  storms  may  prove  a 
source  of  great  loss  to  the  flock  in  the  colds  and  inflam- 
mations that  may  result  and  in  the  debility  that  fre- 
quently follows.  Exposure  to  snow  in  the  absence  of 
driving  wind  may  not  be  very  harmful  to  the  sheep, 
though  it  is  always  injurious  to  young  lambs,  and  long 
exposure  to  cold  rains  is  sure  death  to  the  latter. 

The  amount  of  tagging  and  trimming  called  for  will 
vary  much  in  flocks.  Tagging  is  seldom  necessary  in 
winter  in  a  flock  that  is  healthy,  but  may  become  neces- 
sary in  many  instances  when  sheep  are  changed  from  dry 
food  to  that  possessed  of  much  succulence.  The  accumu- 
lation of  filth  around  and  under  the  tail  head  may  be- 
come very  offensive.  Underneath  maggots  may  be  bred, 
which,  unremoved,  may  soon  make  life  burdensome  to  the 
sheep.  Much  wool  may  also  be  rendered  valueless  in 
this  way.  As  soon  as  such  indications  appear,  the  clots 
should  be  cut  away  with  a  sharp  pair  of  shears,  or  if  they 
have  been  allowed  to  harden  with  a  sharp  knife.  Trim- 
ming the  fleece  is  seldom  necessary  with  grade  flocks  fur- 


FEEDING   AND    CARE   OF   BREEDING    EWES  147 

ther  than  to  cut  away  any  torn  or  protruding  locks  of 
wool,  but  it  may  be  of  more  or  less  benefit  in  enhancing 
the  appearance  of  a  flock  of  pure  breds,  and  in  the  case 
of  sheep  that  are  to  be  shown  it  has  come  to  be  a  neces- 
sity (see  page  268). 

The  trimming  of  the  hoofs  of  ewes  and  other  sheep 
calls  for  attention.  The  horn  of  the  hoof  may  under  some 
conditions  grow  out  and  become  broken  or  split  so  as  to 
cause  lameness.  In  other  instances  the  outer  edge  turns 
under  the  sole,  enhancing  the  difficulty  of  walking.  These 
injurious  growths  of  hoof  are  most  marked  in  soft  soils, 
which  do  not  wear  the  hoofs  as  do  soils  that  are  firm  in 
texture.  The  remedy  consists  in  paring  off  with  a  sharp 
knife  all  the  portion  of  the  bone  that  may  have  turned 
under  the  sole,  and  in  clipping  back  the  outer  edges,  and 
especially  the  toes  when  they  grow  out  too  far. 

Dipping  for  ticks  once  or  twice  a  year  is  now  recom- 
mended and  practiced  by  nearly  all  flockmasters  who  take 
pride  in  the  conditions  of  their  flocks.  It  would  seem 
easily  possible  to  so  eradicate  ticks  that  further  dipping 
would  not  be  necessary,  but  in  practice  such  attainment 
is  seldom  if  ever  reached.  For  the  further  discussion  of 
this  question  (see  Chapter  XX). 

The  too  close  crowding  of  breeding  ewes  should  be 
avoided.  They  need  more  room  than  sheep  that  are  being 
fattened  or  than  shearlings  that  are  retained  for  breeding 
uses.  The  space  called  for  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the 
size  of  the  sheep.  Fifteen  to  20  square  feet  will  be  at 
least  approximately  suitable  as  shed  room  for  ewes  of  the 
large  breeds,  as  the  Leicesters,  Lincolns,  Cotswolds  and 
Oxford  Downs,  and  10  to  15  square  feet  for  ewes  of  the 
smaller  fine  wool  types,  as  the  American  Merinos. 

Too  close  housing  of  sheep  in  winter  will  soon  bring 
disaster  to  any  flock  if  long  persisted  in.  This  comes  not 
only  from  inhaling  the  foul  air,  but  from  overheating, 
which  frequently  induces  sweating  in  the  sheep.  When 
turned  into  the  yards  in  such  a  condition,  catarrhal 


148  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

troubles  follow.  The  safe  rule  is  to  allow  the  ewes  free 
access  to  the  yards  day  and  night,  except  when  the 
weather  is  stormy.  In  cold  climates  such  housing,  given 
with  the  best  intentions,  has  worked  great  harm  to  the 
flocks.  But  it  is  possible  to  winter  ewes  successfully  by 
keeping  them  in  reasonably  warm  and  well-ventilated 
barns  all  the  winter. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  RAMS 

The  subdivisions  in  the  discussion  of  this  subject  are 
the  following:  (i)  Food  for  rams  from  weaning  until  win- 
ter; (2)  Food  and  care  the  first  winter;  (3)  Stock  rams  in 
winter;  (4)  Food  and  care  for  sale  rams  in  summer;  (5) 
Food  and  care  for  stock  rams  in  summer;  (6)  Food  and 
management  during  the  season  of  service;  (7)  The  dis- 
posal of  rams  ;  and  (8)  Miscellaneous  attentions  called  for. 

The  care  and  management  suitable  for  ram  lambs  to 
be  used  in  breeding  up  to  the  weaning  season  is  the  same 
as  for  other  lambs.  It  has  been  given  in  Chapter  VI. 

When  the  lambs  have  been  weaned,  they  should  be 
culled,  separating  those  possessed  of  sufficient  promise 
from  such  as  are  inferior.  The  culling  should  include 
such  as  are  off  in  markings,  ungainly  in  form,  deficient  in 
fleece  and  lacking  in  size  and  robustness. 

It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  sell  or  to  buy  lambs 
for  use  in  pure-bred  flocks  that  lack  the  markings  char- 
acteristic of  the  breed,  or  that  are  possessed  of  character- 
istics which  do  not  properly  belong  to  the  same,  how- 
soever excellent  the  animals  may  be  in  other  respects.  A 
bare  head  or  leg  in  the  Shropshire  illustrates  the  former, 
and  the  presence  of  black  wool  in  any  part  of  the  fleece 
the  latter.  But  such  rams,  if  strong  and  vigorous,  may 
be  superlatively  useful  in  grade  flocks,  hence  they  should 
not  be  sacrificed  where  such  a  market  exists  for  them. 

Lambs  that  are  ungainly  in  form  include  such  as  are 
not  possessed  sufficiently  of  that  blocky  form  that  indi- 
cates vigor  and  good  mutton-producing  qualities.  Such 
lambs  may  possess  good  size,  but  they  are  frequently 
found  too  long  in  limb  and  neck,  too  sharp  in  the  spine, 
too  much  sunken  in  the  crops  and  too  narrow  throughout. 

149 


I5O  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

Such  animals  will  not  transmit  the  most  desirable  mutton 
form.  Ram  lambs  of  highest  excellence  for  breeding,  as 
also  mature  rams,  should  be  compact,  wide  throughout, 
strong  in  the  back,  full  in  the  breast,  level  in  the  crops, 
round  in  the  ribs  and  heavy  and  shapely  in  the  twist  and 
masculine  in  the  head. 

Deficiency  in  the  fleece  that  should  be  possessed  by 
rams  kept  for  breeding  may  relate  more  or  less  to  any  of 
the  requisites  of  a  good  fleece,  or  in  extreme  instances  to 
several  of  them.  The  importance  of  correct  wool  char- 
acteristics increases  with  increase  in  the  relative  value  of 
the  kind  of  wool  furnished  and  increase  in  the  value  that 
the  wool  bears  to  the  mutton  produced  by  the  same  ani- 
mal. Correct  characteristics  in  the  wool  of  the  highest 
type  of  Merino  is  of  more  relative  value  than  the  same 
in  a  high  type  Southdown,  but  in  no  instance  is  it  unim- 
portant where  the  breeding  is  pure.  Nor  would  it  be  cor- 
rect to  say  that  it  is  unimportant  in  the  breeding  of  grades. 
Here  also  the  importance  of  correct  wool  furnishings  in 
the  male  increase  in  proportion  to  the  relative  value  of  the 
fleece  sought. 

Lambs  may  be  lacking  in  size  but  so  possessed  of  other 
good  qualities  that  there  should  be  hesitancy  about  re- 
jecting them  for  service,  especially  when  high-class  mut- 
ton is  sought.  If  the  lambs  are  of  good  form  and  carry 
the  furnishings  that  indicate  robustness,  they  may  be 
peculiarly  valuable  for  the  production  of  good  mutton 
from  grade  ewes ;  especially  when  the  ewes  are  somewhat 
rough  and  lacking  in  quality  will  excellent  results  be 
obtained  from  such  rams,  as  the  lambs  begotten  by  them 
will  possess  a  combined  compactness  of  form  and  refine- 
ment of  limb  that  would  not  result  from  the  use  of  larger 
sires  though  equally  correct  in  form.  In  pure-bred  flocks, 
however,  there  should  be  hesitancy  about  using  sires  in 
service  that  are  under  size,  lest  size  in  the  average  of  the 
flock  should  be  too  much  reduced.  In  no  instance  should 
such  sires  be  used  when  lacking  in  robust  vigor. 


FEEDING  AND   CARE  OF  RAMS  151 

When  the  ram  lambs  are  graded,  those  drawn  for  sale 
to  breeders  of  pure  breds  should  be  kept  apart  fro.n 
those  to  be  sold  to  the  breeders  of  grades,  and  also  from 
the  culls  that  are  to  go  to  the  block.  The  chief  argument 
for  such  isolation  is  found  in  the  adverse  influence  which 
lambs  of  the  second  and  third  classes  named  would  have 
on  the  sale  of  those  of  the  first  class,  and  likewise  the 
adverse  influence  which  those  of  the  third  class  would 
have  on  the  sale  of  those  of  the  second  class.  It  would 
aid  in  making  sales  of  the  .small  lambs  sold  for  breeding 
if  they  could  be  separated  from  those  that  are  larger  but 
off  in  markings ;  but  in  practice  it  is  difficult  to  make  so 
many  divisions.  If  lambs  of  the  first  class  are  not  all  dis- 
posed of  in  the  lamb  form,  it  may  be  profitable  to  carry 
them  over  for  sale  as  shearlings,  but  none  of  the  other 
classes  should  be  thus  held  over  as  a  rule.  They  should 
all  go  to  the  block  rather  than  be  carried  over,  as  the  de- 
mand for  them  as  .shearlings  would  probably  not  be  good. 

Food  for  rams  from  weaning  until  winter — From  the 
time  that  the  lambs  are  weaned  until  winter  closes 
in,  or  until  they  are  sold,  no  kind  of  pasture 
that  can  be  furnished  is  superior  to  dwarf  Essex  rape, 
with  access  at  the  same  time  to  an  old  grass  pasture.  In 
the  absence  of  rape,  second  growth  clover  is  good,  or  blue 
grass  that  is  succulent  and  plentiful,  or  early  sown  win- 
ter rye,  or  indeed  any  kind  of  succulent  food  such  as  may 
be  plentifully  gathered  amid  the  grain  stubbles.  Fall 
turnips  amid  these  are  specially  helpful.  Much  caution 
should  be  used  in  grazing  high-class  lambs  on  the  rape, 
lest  there  should  be  loss  from  bloating  (see  page  193). 

From  the  time  of  weaning  until  the  lambs  are  housed 
for  winter  or  sold,  the  necessity  for  concentrates  and  the 
quantity  of  the  same  to  be  fed  will  depend  in  a  consider- 
able degree  upon  the  pasture.  When  the  supply  of  such 
grazing  as  well-grown  rape,  kohlrabi  or  fall  turnips  is 
plentiful,  the  necessity  is  not  present  for  feeding  large 
quantities  of  grain,  because  of  the  nutritious  character  of 


152  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING    OF   SHEEP 

these  pastures.  In  their  absence  it  will  probably  prove 
advantageous  to  feed  about  I  pound  of  grain  daily  per 
animal  with  oats  as  its  base,  the  additions  to  the  oats 
being  preferably  wheat  bran  or  oilcake  or  both  for  the 
lambs  to  be  used  in  feeding,  and  corn  or  barley  for  those 
to  be  sent  to  the  block.  With  the  former  good  growth  is 
the  prime  consideration,  but  with  the  latter  high  condi- 
tion is  the  prime  requisite. 

It  will  usually  be  time  well  spent-  to  tag  the  lambs 
held  for  sale  as  breeders  when  necessary,  and  to  trim 
them  more  or  less — more  in  the  case  of  the  dark-faced 
breeds  and  less  in  that  of  the  other  breeds  (see  page  296). 

Food  and  care  the  first  winter — The  shelter  called  for 
to  protect  ram  lambs  the  first  winter  will  suffice  if  it  gives 
them  a  dry  bed  and  shields  them  from  falling  storms  and 
drafts.  For  convenience  in  feeding  and  watering,  they 
are  frequently  kept  in  one  of  the  apartments  of  the  sheep 
house,  and  when -so  kept  it  is  less  necessary  to  have  them 
on  the  sunny  side  of  the  sheep  house  than  in  the  case  of 
breeding  ewes.  It  is  very  necessary  to  furnish  them  with 
a  yard  or  paddock  in  which  to  exercise.  It  will  add  to 
their  sureness  in  begetting  progeny  if  they  can  spend 
much  of  the  time  in  the  winter  in  the  pastures,  when  the 
conditions  will  admit  of  this.  In  spring  they  may  remain 
overnight  in  the  pastures  considerably  earlier  than  would 
be  safe  in  the  case  of  the  breeding  ewes.  For  reasons  that 
will  be  manifest,  they  should  be  kept  entirely  separate 
from  the  ewes  of  the  flock. 

As  it  is  important  that  such  lambs  shall  continue  to 
make  good  growth  the  first  winter,  they  must  be  fed 
accordingly.  The  aim  should  be  to  give  them  growth 
without  excessive  fatness.  This  will  be  realized  only 
when  they  are  given  food  essentially  nitrogenous  in  char- 
acter and  succulent.  If  liberally  supplied  with  field  roots, 
almost  any  kind  of  fodders  will  answer  that  are  of  fine 
growth  and  well  cured.  With  three  or  four  pounds  of 
roots  daily,  and  good  leguminous  hay,  but  little  grain 


FEEDING  AND   CARE   OF   RAMS  153 

will  be  needed.  But  if  the  lamb's  have  been  fed  grain 
while  on  the  autumn  pasture,  it  will  usually  pay  to  give 
them  some  grain  daily  through  the  winter,  but  not  usu- 
ally more  than  i  pound  per  animal  daily.  The  standard 
grain  food  for  such  animals  is  oats,  or  barley,  wheat, 
bran,  and  a  small  proportion,  say  5  per  cent,  of  oilcake, 
added.  When  the  rams  are  to  be  sold  for  range  uses, 
pampering  should  be  guarded  against,  or  the  rams  will 
not  have  the  desired  vigor  for  roughing  it  on  the  range. 
Ranchmen  should  not  invest  in  males  without  carefully 
investigating  as  to  the  way  in  which  they  have  been  fed 
and  cared  for. 

The  number  of  the  ram  lambs  that  may  be  profitably 
kept  in  one  flock  will  be  influenced  by  the  breed.  It  would 
probably  be  correct  to  say  that  of  the  fine  wooled  breeds 
as  many  as  100  animals  may  be  kept  in  one  flock,  while 
a  flock  of  medium  or  coarse  wooled  rams  should  not  ex- 
ceed 50  animals.  The  roominess  of  the  quarters  and  their 
suitability  generally  exercise  a  wide  influence  on  the  num- 
ber that  may  be  kept  in  one  flock.  If  any  of  the  rams 
thus  brought  together,  whether  going  into  winter  quar- 
ters or  at  other  times,  are  strange  to  each  other,  fighting 
is  sure  to  follow,  and  it  may  result  fatally.  This  may 
be  prevented  by  putting  the  animals  thus  brought  to- 
gether in  narrow  quarters.  For  want  of  room  they  can- 
not harm  each  other  seriously,  and  yet  they  are  able  to 
settle  the  question  as  to  relative  strength.  This  is  also 
greatly  important  when  valuable  stock  rams  previously 
kept  apart  are  brought  together  to  pass  the  winter  in  the 
same  quarters. 

Stock  rams  in  winter — Stock  rams — that  is,  rams  used 
in  service  in  the  flock — should  have  an  apartment  for 
themselves,  and  when  this  keeps  them  quite  away  from 
close  proximity  to  the  ewes,  it  is  just  so  much  better 
suited  to  their  needs,  since  in  it  they  will  be  quiet  and 
restful.  In  sheep  sheds  with  an  aisle  running  down 
through  the  center  of  the  building,  with  pens  or  divisions 


154  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING    OF   SHEEP 

on  both  sides  of  it,  the  breeding  ewes  are  commonly  kept 
on  one  side  and  the  rams  and  sale  sheep  on  the  other  side. 
The  apartment  in  which  those  rams  are  kept  in  winter 
should  open  into  a  yard,  and  this  into  a  paddock.  No 
surer  method  could  be  taken  of  destroying  the  breeding 
powers  in  rams  than  to  deny  them  exercise  for  periods 
at  all  prolonged.  Usually  the  number  of  the  rams  thus 
kept  together  is  limited.  Because  of  this,  it  may  be  more 
convenient  to  keep  the  rams  of  different  ages  all  in  one 
pen.  This  is  allowable  when  the  food  is  moderate  in 
character,  but  the  aim  should  be  to  keep  ram  lambs  sepa- 
rate from  the  older  ewes,  as  they  need  a  more  forcing  diet 
to  give  them  completed  growth. 

During  the  period  of  active  service,  the  rams  have 
probably  been  fed  a  liberal  grain  ration  to  sustain  them 
at  a  time  when  the  drain  upon  their  system  is  severe. 
When  the  season  for  service  is  over,  there  should  be  a 
gradual  reduction  in  the  grain  fed,  and  probably  a  mod- 
ification in  the  kinds  fed.  During  the  winter  stock  rams 
should  be  kept  in  a  good  condition  of  thrift  without  ex- 
cessive fatness.  No  kind  of  food  will  tend  to  keep  them 
in  this  condition  better  than  field  roots,  but  in  the  case 
of  rams  mangels  should  not  be  fed,  lest  trouble  should 
result  from  the  lack  of  free  urination.  The  same  kinds  of 
grain  as  were  given  as  suitable  for  ram  lambs  (see  page 
113)  will  also  be  found  suitable  for  stock  rams.  The 
amount  to  feed  should  be  regulated  by  the  condition  of 
the  rams,  and  it  should  be  kept  as  low  as  will  be  rea- 
sonably consistent  on  economical  grounds  and  to  avoid 
overtaxing  the  machinery  of  digestion  in  the  rams. 

Should  the  stock  rams  be  allowed  to  run  with  the 
breeding  ewes  in  winter,  they  are  less  restful  than  when 
kept  alone.  The  danger  is  present,  at  least  to  some  ex- 
tent, that  they  may  injure  the  pregnant  ewes.  Nor  is 
the  food  that  is  suitable  for  the  ewes  always  suitable  for 
the  stock  rams. 

Sale  rams  in  summer — As  the  rams  held  for  sale  as 


FEEDING  AND   CARE   OF   RAMS  155 

shearlings  are  of  uncompleted  growth,  it  is  important 
that  they  shall  be  given  good  grazing  until  the  season 
for  selling  arrives.  This  does  not  mean,  of  course,  that 
the  grazing  shall  be  long,  in  the  sense  that  good  grazing 
is  understood  for  cattle,  but  that  the  range  on  which  they 
feed  shall  be  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  secure  food 
enough  to  keep  them  growing  continuously  and  to  main- 
tain them  in  good  flesh ;  any  kind  of  grazing  that  will  do 
this  will  suffice. 

Whether  supplementary  grain  food  should  be  given 
will  depend  chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  grazing.  Where 
that  is  sufficient  to  insure  good  growth  and  a  fair  condi- 
tion as  to  flesh,  it  would  not  be  economical  to  add  a  grain 
supplement.  When  rape  furnishes  any  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  pasture,  the  feeding  of  grain  will  not  be 
necessary.  But  because  of  the  value  of  such  rams,  it  may 
be  profitable  to  give  them  rape  only  as  soiling  food  rather 
than  as  pasture.  When  thus  fed,  the  feeding  may  be  so 
controlled  as  to  practically  eliminate  the  danger  of  loss 
from  bloating.  While  such  rams  should  be  in  good  con- 
dition of  flesh,  they  should  not  be  pampered.  This  is 
even  more  emphatically  true  of  such  rams  as  are  to  be 
sold  for  use  on  the  ranges. 

Attention  should  be  given  to  the  tagging  of  sale  rams 
whenever  called  for  during  the  season  preceding  that  of 
sale.  Such  attention  should  be  given  with  great  prompt- 
ness, otherwise  the  tagging  may  deform  the  symmetry  of 
the  fleece,  which  will  injure  the  sale  to  the  extent  to  which 
it  may  be  present.  A  certain  amount  of  trimming  will 
aid  in  making  sales,  especially  with  the  middle-wool 
breeds.  It  is  also  important  that  such  rams  shall  be  shorn 
as  early  as  the  weather  conditions  will  admit  of  such 
shearing.  Early  shearing  relieves  them  of  the  burden  of 
that  long  fleece  relatively  which  shearlings  bear,  and  it 
gives  them  greater  length  of  fleece  at  the  time  for  selling 
than  they  would  otherwise  possess. 

Stock  rams  in  summer — The  pastures  for  stock  rams 


156  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

in  summer  will  be  ample  when  they  sustain  them  in  good 
flesh.  In  some  instances  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  keep 
them  apart  from  the  sale  rams.  However,  they  are  not 
infrequently  kept  in  paddocks,  especially  as  the  season 
for  service  approaches,  for  the  reason  chiefly  that  sup- 
plementary foods  may  be  conveniently  fed  to  them. 


FIG.  8— A  NOTED  PRIZE-WINNING  YEARLING  SHROPSHIRE  RAM 

The  property  of  Geo.  McKerrow  &  Sons,  Pewaukee,  Wisconsin 

(Courtesy  of  owners) 

Where  the  pastures  will  maintain  sufficient  flesh 
without  grain,  it  is  better  not  to  feed  it  to  them  at  that 
season,  as  the  comparative  rest  to  the  digestive  powers 
which  succulent  and  nutritious  grazing  brings  with  it  is 
beneficial.  The  change  thus  effected  will  make  grain 
feeding  the  more  effective  when  it  is  resumed  again,  pre- 
paring the  rams  for  service. 


FEEDING  AND    CARE   OF   RAMS  157 

As  the  season  for  service  approaches,  the  rams 
should  be  given  supplementary  food.  Such  feeding 
should  increase  gradually  from  the  time  when  it  is  be- 
gun until  maximum  amounts  are  fed.  The  feeding  of 
supplementary  food  should  begin  not  less  than  two  to 
three  weeks  before  service  begins.  The  grain  fed  should 
be  nitrogenous,  and  it  should  not  be  fed  to  the  extent  of 
producing  undue  fatness  in  the  rams  with  the  accom- 
panying sluggishness  that  would  result  from  such  a  con- 
dition. Care  must  also  be  taken  to  feed  a  due  propor- 
tion of  succulent  food  along  with  the  grain.  Such  food  is 
peculiarly  helpful  in  sustaining  in  proper  condition  the 
organs  concerned  in  generation. 

Rams  during  the  season  of  service — The  food  and 
management  generally  suitable  for  rams  during  the  sea- 
son of  service  will  be  much  influenced  by  the  relative  size 
and  value  of  the  flock  with  which  they  are  to  be  mated. 
When  the  flock  is  small,  say  not  more  than  a  score,  there 
may  be  instances  in  which  it  would  be  proper  even  to 
allow  valuable  rams  to  remain  in  the  pastures  with  the 
flock  and  without  extra  food  and  care.  In  the  case  of 
grade  flocks  it  may  be  admissible  to  allow  them  to  run 
with  a  flock  considerably  larger.  But  when  a  ram  is  to 
serve  50  valuable  ewes,  or  even  a  larger  number,  he 
should  be  kept  in  a  shed  with  yard  or  paddock  attached 
and  fed  food  that  will  aid  in  sustaining  in  vigorous  action 
the  organs  concerned  in  generation.  In  this  way  also 
the  ram  may  be  prevented  from  wasting  his  energies 
through  an  excess  of  service  given  to  each  ewe.  In  some 
instances  rams  of  the  Merino  type  are  shorn  before  the 
season  of  service,  to  relieve  them  of  the  oppressive  load 
of  wool  which  they  carry. 

The  food  given  to  the  rams  that  are  in  service  should 
be  of  high  quality.  Valuable  rams  in  service  are  com- 
monly kept  in  a  comfortable  apartment  of  a  shed  during 
the  day,  and  are  allowed  the  liberty  of  a  small  paddock 
or  pasture  at  night. 


158  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

Where  the  pasture  is  restricted,  as  it  frequently  is, 
green  food  is  fed  as  soiling  food.  For  such  a  use  nothing 
is  more  suitable  than  well-grown  rape  or  alfalfa,  cut  not 
later  than  the  stage  of  early  bloom.  Many  other  kinds 
of  green  food  will  answer,  as  corn  of  tender  growth,  peas 
and  oats  or  vetches  and  oats  grown  together,  field  roots 
with  the  tops,  cabbage  and  also  pumpkins.  Such  food 
may  be  given,  up  to  the  limit  of  consumption,  providing 
the  digestion  remains  undisturbed.  Rape  and  alfalfa,  if 
fed  somewhat  wilted,  will  not  produce  bloat,  which  may 
happen  if  the  rams  were  to  graze  on  these,  or  even  on 
clover.  No  grain  food  is  more  suitable  for  such  rams  than 
oats  if  only  one  kind  of  grain  is  fed,  but  an  addition  of  a 
small  amount  of  Canada  peas,  wheat  or  barley,  may  im- 
prove the  ration.  In  the  absence  of  green  food,  wheat 
bran  and  oil  cake,  especially  the  former,  may  be  added 
with  profit  to  the  grain.  The  amount  of  grain  fed  may 
exceed  two  pounds  daily  in  some  instances.  In  any  event 
the  amount  should  be  liberal.  Such  rams  will  also  turn 
to  good  account  some  hay,  especially  when  leguminous 
in  character. 

When  the  rams  run  with  small  flocks  of  ewes  in  the 
fields,  no  especial  attention  for  the  ram  may  be  necessary 
further  than  to  rub  some  kind  of  coloring  matter  over 
his  breast  and  brisket  to  indicate  which  ewes  have  been 
served  (see  page  162).  In  some  instances  rams  are  fed 
grain  while  running  with  the  flock.  This,  however,  in- 
volves the  necessity  of  a  daily  visit  by  the  shepherd,  and 
a  further  draft  on  his  time  while  the  ram  is  consuming  the 
grain.  When  they  are  kept  up,  the  ewes  are  usually 
driven  to  the  yard  morning  or  evening.  The  ram  soon 
singles  out  any  in  heat  and  these  should  be  at  once  re- 
moved. When  all  have  been  served,  the  ram  is  at  once 
removed  and  the  ewes  are  kept  away  from  the  flock  for 
several  hours.  In  other  instances  what  is  known  as  a 
"teaser"  is  used  to  indicate  which  ewes  are  in  heat.  A 
teaser  is  simply  a  ram  carrying  what  may  be  termed  a 


FEEDING  AND   CARE  OF   RAMS 


159 


cloth  apron,  which  makes  it  impossible  for  him  to  serve 
ewes.  Of  course,  valuable  rams  are  not  devoted  to  such 
a  use. 

The  amount  of  service  which  rams  may  profitably 
render  is  influenced  by  such  conditions  as  age,  natural 
vigor,  breed  and  management  during  the  season  of  service. 
It  is  not  enough  that  rams  shall  be  capable  of  begetting 


FIG.  9— A  NOTED  PRIZE-WINNING  YEARLING  OXFORD  DOWN  RAM 
The  property  of  Geo.  McKerrow  &  Sons,  Pewaukee,  Wisconsin 
(Courtesy  of  owners) 

progeny.  It  is  all  important  that  they  beget  a  numerous 
and  vigorous  progeny,  which  they  will  not  do  if  overtaxed 
by  excessive  service.  Instances  are  on  record  in  which  rams 
have  served  without  any  marked  reduction  in  condition 
in  a  single  season  200  ewes.  These  were  Merino  rams 
and  the  service  required  extended  over  a  considerable 
period.  Usually  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  that 


160  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

number  is  all  that  a  well-grown  ram  should  be  allowed 
to  serve  in  a  single  season,  and  when  the  ram  is  with  the 
flock  it  should  not  comprise  so  large  a  number  of  ewes. 
A  ram  lamb  should  not  usually  be  allowed  to  serve  more 
than  20  ewes.  One  ram,  though  mature,  should  not  be 
allowed  to  serve  more  than  say  three  ewes  in  a  day  and 
at  intervals  of  not  less  than  three  to  four  hours. 

The  disposal  of  rams — The  breeders  of  stock  rams 
usually  aim  at  the  disposal  of  a  large  percentage  of  the 
product  for  the  season  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  that 
produced  them.  When  sold  as  lambs,  the  prices  obtained 
are  usually  as  good,  and  in  some  instances  better,  rela- 
tively, than  when  they  are  sold  as  shearlings ;  and  when 
thus  sold  the  risk  of  loss  is  shifted  to  the  purchaser,  and 
larger  room  is  left  for  those  unsold.  But  sales  cannot 
usually  be  made  unless  they  are  well  developed.  Pur- 
chasers are  but  little  inclined  to  buy  small  ram  lambs  to 
be  used  as  sires,  and  it  is  fortunate  that  they  are.  Some 
breeders  object  to  the  use  of  lambs  as  sires  on  the  ground 
that  older  sires  possessed  of  more  maturity  will  transmit 
more  of  vigor  to  the  progeny.  The  laws  of  breeding  give 
considerable  support  to  the  view,  but  the  idea  must  not 
be  pressed  too  far,  as  in  small  flocks,  reasonably  good 
results  have  followed  the  use  of  the  ram  lambs  as  sires. 

All  things  taken  into  account,  the  purchase  of  shear- 
ling rams  is  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  ram  lambs  to  be 
used  in  service,  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  secure  shearlings 
possessed  of  all-round  high  quality  than  to  secure  lambs 
possessed  of  the  same,  as  the  best  of  the  lambs  are  very 
frequently  sold  as  lambs,  leaving  only  those  that  have 
been  thus  passed  by  to  be  sold  as  shearlings.  But  the  in- 
dividuality of  the  animal  may  more  certainly  be  known 
as  a  shearling,  as  growth  is  then  more  nearly  completed. 
Ranchmen  prefer  shearling  rams  to  lambs,  for  reasons  that 
will  be  apparent.  Should  any  of  the  shearlings  remain  un- 
sold, the  wisdom  of  carrying  them  over  another  year  to  sell 
as  breeders  is  questionable.  The  fact  that  they  have  re- 


FEEDING  AND   CARE  OF  RAMS  l6l 

mained  on  hand  for  so  long  a  period  raises  a  suspicion 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  are  seeking  rams  that  they 
were  not  disposed  of  because  of  inferiority  in  their  fur- 
nishings. 

When  good  stock  rams  have  been  used  for  say  two 
years,  it  may  be  necessary  to  dispose  of  them  to  avoid  in- 
breeding. When  they  have  shown  peculiar  excellence  in 
the  line  of  prepotency,  it  would  be  unfortunate  to  have 
such  rams  sent  to  the  block.  Those  seeking  rams  to  head 
their  flocks  of  that  particular  breed,  should  give  the  pref- 
erence to  these  when  they  can  obtain  them.  Their  pre- 
potency has  been  proved,  which,  of  course,  cannot  be  said 
of  young  rams.  If,  however,  such  rams  should  be  pur- 
chased by  those  not  instructed  in  the  care  of  such  rams, 
disaster  may  follow.  It  will  usually  be  found  advisable 
to  care  for  them  on  lines  similar  to  those  to  which  they 
have  become  accustomed.  Violence  in  care  and  food 
given  to  such  rams  will  usually  result  in  great  injury  to 
them. 

The  age  to  which  rams  may  be  kept  in  service  with 
profit  and  advantage  cannot  be  stated,  except  in  the  most 
general  way,  for  reasons  that  will  be  apparent.  It  would 
be  correct  to  say  that  usually  the  period  of  most  active 
service  for  rams  is  when  they  are  shearlings,  two  years 
old,  three  years  old  and  four  years  old.  In  other  words, 
they  are  in  service  four  seasons.  Instances  are  on  record 
in  which  Merino  rams  have  been  in  service  for  more  than 
a  dozen  years.  But  there  may  be  instances  in  which  the 
period  covered  will  be  twice  as  long.  And  there  may  be 
other  instances  when  the  period  of  service  should  be 
closed  sooner.  It  is  greatly  important  to  use  rams  only 
that  are  possessed  of  much  vigor,  whatsoever  the  age 
may  be. 

Miscellaneous  attentions  called  for — Certain  atten- 
tions are  called  for  in  the  management  of  rams  that  may 
not  seem  greatly  important,  and  yet  when  given  they 
add  to  the  profit  from  keeping  them.  These  include  (i) 


l62  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

trimming  the  wool  on  sale  rams;  (2)  trimming  the  feet 
when  necessary;  (3)  "ruddling"  the  rams  when  they  run 
with  the  ewes  at  the  time  of  service;  and  (4)  isolating 
rams  brought  in  from  distant  flocks. 

The  degree  of  the  trimming  called  for  is  less  than 
that  given  to  show  rams,  but  a  certain  amount  of  it  will 
in  a  majority  of  instances  add  to  the  attractive  appear- 
ance of  the  rams.  The  long  wooled  breeds  may  not  be  im- 
proved much  by  it,  nor  is  it  given  to  the  Merino  types. 
But  the  middle  wooled  breeds  will  be  much  improved  by 
trimming  (see  page  268).  The  fleece  should  also  be  care- 
fully guarded  against  the  seeds  of  plants  that  adhere  to 
the  wool,  such  as  burs.  A  few  plants  growing  in  by- 
places  unnoticed  will  deform  the  fleece  of  many  rams  that 
may  have  grazed  near  them. 

The  feet  of  all  rams  may  need  trimming,  but  the  need 
will  be  greatest  with  rams  in  service.  For  the  method  of 
trimming  (see  page  282).  It  is  greatly  important  that 
stock  rams  shall  be  kept  active  on  their  feet,  for  reasons 
that  will  be  apparent. 

By  ruddling  is  meant  applying  some  coloring  sub- 
stance to  the  breast  and  brisket  of  the  ram  that  will  leave 
its  imprint  on  the  ewe  that  has  been  served.  The  benefits 
resulting  are  the  evidence  of  service  and  the  possibility 
of  knowing  the  date  of  the  same.  Lampblack  and  oil 
are  the  materials  used  in  some  instances,  and  powdered 
red  chalk  and  linseed  oil  in  others.  Various  paint  mix- 
tures, however,  may  be  used.  Those  that  dry  least 
quickly  will  best  serve  the  purpose.  The  frequency  with 
which  the  application  is  renewed  will  vary  with  the  dry- 
ing properties  of  the  coloring  matter  used. 

The  isolating  or  quarantining  of  a  ram  brought  into 
the  flock  is  a  wise  precaution,  unless  it  is  absolutely  cer- 
tain that  in  all  respects  he  is  healthy.  The  introduction 
of  sheep  scab  and  ticks  may  in  this  way  be  ascertained,  if 
present,  within  a  few  weeks,  and  in  this  way  may  be  pre- 
vented from  reaching  the  flock.  Two  careful  dippings 


FEEDING  AND    CARE   OF    RAMS  163 

given  within,  say,  10  days  of  each  other  will  render  fur- 
ther quarantining  unnecessary.  Such  dipping  is  greatly 
important  when  rams  are  taken  into  flocks  on  the  ranges, 
and  when  done  at  the  farm  or  ranch  all  danger  of  infec- 
tion on  the  way  is  thus  avoided. 


CHAPTER  IX 
PASTURES  AND  GRAZING  THEM  BY  SHEEP 

In  Chapter  IX  the  following  phases  of  this  question 
are  discussed:  (i)  The  best  natural  grazing  lands  for 
sheep;  (2)  Grass  pastures  permanent  in  character;  (3) 
Grass  pastures  temporary  in  character ;  (4)  Pastures  sup- 
plementary in  character;  (5)  Pastures  for  winter  grazing; 
(6)  Grazing  sheep  on  grass  pastures ;  (7)  Grazing  sheep 
on  supplementary  pastures;  and  (8)  The  benefits  from 
supplementary  grazing.  In  sheep  husbandry  the  ques- 
tion of  grazing  and  the  methods  of  conducting  the  graz- 
ing are  relatively  of  much  importance,  because  of  the 
large  portion  of  the  year  during  which  the  sheep  have 
access  to  the  pastures. 

The  best  natural  grazing  lands — The  best  natural 
grazing  lands  for  sheep  are:  (i)  Those  that  have  good 
natural  or  artificial  drainage;  (2)  that  produce  herbage 
in  variety,  fine,  palatable  and  nutritious;  and  (3)  that 
have  ample  shade  and  living  water.  With  these  requi- 
sites the  value  of  the  pastures  will  be  proportionately  ad- 
vanced by  their  increasing  productiveness. 

If  sheep  are  to  thrive  continually,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  pastures  on  which  they  thrive  shall 
possess  good  natural  or  artificial  drainage.  This  does  not 
mean  that  they  must  be  rolling  or  even  undulating  in 
character,  but  that  they  must  be  free  from  stagnant  water. 
The  greater  suitability  of  undulating  and  rolling  lands 
for  providing  such  grazing  arises  from  the  fact,  first,  that 
they  usually  do  possess  good  natural  drainage ;  second, 
that  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  usually  reasonably  dry  at  all 
seasons ;  and,  third,  that  the  herbage  growing  on  them 
is  usually  such  as  is  relished  by  sheep.  But  this  does  not 
mean  that  sheep  may  not  be  grown  successfully  on  pas- 

164 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING  THEM    BY   SHEEP  165 

tures  that  are  level  and  even  low,  providing  they  are 
properly  drained,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  great  success 
that  has  attended  the  growing  of  sheep  on  the  reclaimed 
fens  of  Lincolnshire  and  the  reclaimed  marshes  of  Kent 
in  England. 

That  sheep  delight  in  variety  in  the  pastures  is  abun- 
dantly shown  in  the  great  variety  of  weeds  even  that  they 


FIG.   10— SHROPSHIRES  ON  SUMMER  GRAZING 
The  property  of  Renk  Bros.,  Wisconsin 


l66  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

will  consume  (see  page  13).  Pastures  composed  of 
mixed  grasses  should,  therefore,  prove  very  suitable  for 
sheep.  But  this  does  not  mean  that  they  cannot  be 
maintained  in  good  form  on  pasture  with  but  one  or  two 
grasses,  as  shown  in  the  thrift  that  usually  comes  to  sheep 
maintained  on  blue  grass  only  or  on  buffalo  grass.  Fine 
grasses  are  much  preferred  to  those  that  are  coarse,  hence 
one  reason  of  the  greater  fondness  of  sheep  for  blue  grass 
(Poa  pratensis)  and  buffalo  grass  (Buchloe  dactyloides) 
than  for  orchard  grass  (Dactylus  glomerata)  or  tall  oat 
grass  (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum).  Palatability  is,  of 
course,  a  prime  essential  in  pastures.  Usually  succulence 
and  palatability  are  closely  associated,  and  succulence  is 
greatest  in  pastures  in  the  early  stages  of  growth.  Those 
grasses,  therefore,  which  continue  to  grow  during  much  of 
the  season  are  preferable  to  those  that  grow  'quickly  to 
maturity  and  then  practically  cease  to  grow  for  the  sea- 
son. This  explains  why  sheep  will  eat  blue  grass  with  a 
relish  all  the  season,  though  they  will  -consume  weeds 
only  when  they  are  in  the  succulent  stage.  The  nutri- 
tion in  grasses  is,  of  course,  greatly  important,  and  it  is 
greater  in  seasons  relatively  dry  than  in  those  that  are 
moist. 

The  necessity  for  shade  increases  with  increase  in 
the  summer  heat.  It  is  usually  test  provided  by  trees, 
but  in  their  absence  may  be  furnished  by  shecls  made  of 
a  roof  consisting  of  poles  and  covered  with  straw  or  other 
material.  In  permanent  pastures  a  grove  could  usually 
be  grown  in  a  few  years,  when  properly  protected.  On 
farms  located  on  the  prairie  the  grass  around  the  out- 
buildings may  furnish  the  necessary  shade,  but  shade  in 
the  pastures  is  preferable,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  con- 
tiguity to  the  grazing.  On  the  dry  ranges  of  the  west 
sheep  not  provided  with  shade  suffer  considerably  from 
exposure  to  the -summer  heat. 

The  advantage  of  living  water  in  pastures  for  sheep 
cannot  easily  be  overestimated.  They  should  not  be  al- 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING   THEM   BY   SHEEP  1 67 

lowed  to  drink  from  stagnant  pools  in  the  summer  sea- 
son, nor  should  they  be  allowed  to  feed  upon  the  rank, 
coarse  herbage  that  is  frequently  found  growing  around 
the  borders  of  these,  and  also  on  land  that  during  por- 
tions of  the  year  is  saturated  with  water.  Sheep  thus 
grazed  are  much  liable  to  be  preyed  upon  by  parasites 
which  frequently  abound  where  such  conditions  exist,  and 
yet  in  northern  areas  there  are  basins  and  small  lakes 
which  do  not  incur  such  hazard;  as,  for  instance,  many 
of  those  found  in  the  park  area  of  Minnesota.  But  in 
these  the  waters,  for  various  reasons,  remain  clear,  and 
they  do  not  grow  sedge,  aquatic  plants  or  coarse  grasses 
around  their  borders. 

Extensive  pastures  are  better  adapted  relatively  for 
being  grazed  by  sheep  than  by  cattle,  as  they  usually 
furnish  a  greater  variety  of  herbage  gratifying  to  sheep 
than  pastures  not  extensive,  and  they  give  more  oppor- 
tunity for  indulgence  in  the  roaming  habit  while  being 
grazed.  Sheep  will  also  thrive  better  relatively  on  rugged 
and  sparse  pastures  than  cattle,  as,  because  of  their 
greater  lightness  of  body,  they  gather  their  food  with  less 
effort.  An  occasional  change  of  pastures  is  also,  as  a 
rule,  helpful  to  sheep. 

Grass  pastures  permanent  in  character — Grass  pas- 
tures for  sheep  permanent  in  character  are  composed, 
first,  of  grasses  that  are  indigenous  to  the  locality,  or,  if 
introduced,  highly  adapted  to  the  conditions ;  and,  second, 
grasses  composed  of  mixtures  which  are  sown  to  pro- 
duce grazing  for  long  periods. 

Prominent  among  the  former  are  grasses  that  grow  on 
unbroken  areas  without  being  sown  by  man  after  the 
forest  has  been  cut  away  on  the  unbroken  prairie  and  on 
the  western  ranges.  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  by  far  the 
most  prominent  and  valuable  of  the  grasses  that  grow 
thus  in  forest  areas,  and  it  promises  to  cover  the  larger 
portion  of  the  cultivated  area  of  the  prairie  in  the  future 
not  distant.  It  has  the  unique  quality  of  being  able  to 


168  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

retain  its  hold  upon  the  land  when  it  has  once  been  in- 
troduced without  hindering  in  any  way  the  processes  of 
cultivation.  Moreover,  it  forms  a  thick  sod  which  is  fav- 
orable to  dry  and  clear  grazing,  and  it  furnishes  grazing 
fine  in  character  and  that  is  much  relished.  It  is,  in  a 
sense,  the  cosmopolitan  grass  of  the  continent,  but  it  is 
not  well  adapted  to  the  dry  ranges  of  the  west,  nor  to  the 
hot  summers  of  the  far  south.  Grasses  of  the  grama 
family  must  continue  in  great  measure  to  furnish  the 
permanent  pastures  of  the  ranges.  White  clover  sown 
on  blue  grass  pastures  usually  thenceforth  becomes  its 
abiding  partner  and  adds  considerably  to  the  value  of  the 
grazing.  Red  top  has  a  prominent  place  among  those 
that  provide  such  grazing  in  northerly  areas  of  the 
southern  states,  and  Bermuda  grass  still  further  south. 

The  permanent  pastures  composed  of  mixtures  may 
usually  include  several  of  the  more  prominent  grasses 
and  clovers.  It  would  be  correct  to  say  that  no  valuable 
grass  not  possessed  of  weedlike  properties,  as  quack 
grass  (Agropyrum  repens),  for  instance,  is  debarred  from 
being  used  to  provide  permanent  pastures  in  some  part 
of  the  United  States  or  Canada.  The  same  is  true  of 
clovers.  The  mixtures  that  may  be  used  to  form  perma- 
nent pasture  in  the  various  areas  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  are  discussed  in  Chapter  XVI  of  the  book, 
"Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them,"  by  the  author.  The 
methods  of  establishing  the  pastures  are  also  discussed 
in  the  same. 

Permanent  pastures  sown  to  provide  grazing  for 
sheep  are  not  much  in  evidence  on  this  continent.  The 
need  for  them  has  not  been  much  felt,  owing  to  the  abun- 
dance of  other  grazing  in  proportion  to  the  numbers  of 
the  sheep  kept.  Doubtless  their  day  is  coming,  as  where 
sheep  are  numerously  kept  some  form  of  permanent  pas- 
ture is  necessary,  and  under  most  conditions  that  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  grasses  is  more  suitable  and  more 
productive  than  a  pasture  composed  chiefly  of  but  one 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING  THEM    BY    SHEEP  169 

variety.  Alfalfa  has  been  recommended  as  a  permanent 
pasture  plant  for  sheep,  but  its  value  for  such  a  use  unless 
mixed  with  other  grasses  is  problematical,  because  of  the 
harm  through  bloating  which  the  alfalfa  may  give  rise 
to  in  sheep  and  the  harm  through  close  grazing  which  the 
sheep  may  do  to  the  alfalfa. 

Grass  pastures  temporary  in  character — The  com- 
position of  grass  pastures  temporary  in  character  must, 
of  course,  be  much  influenced  by  the  adaptation  in  the 
grass  and  clovers  in  each  locality.  Such  plants  only  can 
be  used  as  are  able  quickly  to  establish  themselves  in  the 
soil.  If  they  can  establish  themselves  in  a  single  season, 
their  adaptation  is,  of  course,  higher  than  if  a  longer 
time  is  required.  Timothy  occupies  a  foremost  place 
among  the  grasses  that  establish  themselves  quickly. 
Orchard  grass,  tall  oat  grass  and  some  of  the  rye  grasses 
are  akin  to  it  in  this  respect,  but  the  limitations  to  their 
adaptation  tend  much  to  circumscribe  the  area  of  their 
growth.  Russian  brome  occupies  an  intermediate  place 
and  meadow  fescue  and  Kentucky  blue  grass  are  so  slow 
in  becoming  established  as  to  render  it  unwise  to  sow 
them  for  such  grazing.  All  the  clovers  establish  them- 
selves quickly  and  are  therefore  suitable  for  such  pastures. 
No  other  mixture  of  grasses  has  become  so  gen- 
erally popular  in  providing  temporary  pastures  as  timo- 
thy and  medium  red  clover,  as,  sown  in  the  spring  along 
with  a  nurse  crop,  they  usually  cover  the  ground  by  the 
advent  of  winter.  But  several  varieties  of  clover  will 
serve  the  purpose  better  than  one  variety,  since  they 
provide  food  at  different  times  as  growth  progresses. 
Sainfoin,  but  little  grown  as  yet  in  America,  will  doubt- 
less have  a  place  in  some  of  the  states  in  providing  pas- 
ture for  sheep.  It  will  grow  in  soils  rather  dry  and  poor. 
It  is  fine  of  stem  and  leaf,  and  sheep  are  very  fond  of  it. 

The  duration  of  such  pasture  must  be  determined 
by  such  conditions  as  the  extent  to  which  the  pasture  is 
wanted  and  the  nature  of  the  rotation.  Usually  such 


I/O  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

pastures  are  of  short  duration.  In  some  instances  they 
are  grazed  but  one  year;  in  others  for  two  and  even  for 
three  and  four  seasons.  The  grazing  of  these  may,  of 
course,  alternate  with  the  production  of  hay. 

More  commonly  the  best  arrangement  of  grass  pas- 
tures for  sheep  is  that  which  provides  both  temporary  and 
permanent  grazing.  Permanent  pasture  in  some  form  is 
usually  a  great  convenience  when  grazing  sheep,  as  it 
may  be  relied  upon  to  furnish  grazing  at  any  season  of 
the  year  when  the  ground  is  bare ;  whereas  other  pastures 
might  not  prove  so  suitable  in  periods  of  prolonged  rain- 
fall, as  they  are  not  covered  with  so  firm  a  turf. 

Pastures  supplementary  in  character — The  plan  of 
supplementing  the  grass  pastures  with  grazing  furnished 
by  other  plants  is  growing  in  favor  wherever  sheep  are 
kept  primarily  for  mutton.  Of  course,  such  pastures  can- 
not be  grown  on  the  open  ranges,  but  the  sheep  may  be 
taken  from  the  ranges  to  the  grazing  thus  provided  under 
arable  farm  conditions,  and  this  method  of  grazing  and 
even  of  finishing  range  sheep  is  growing  in  favor. 

The  following  are  prominent  among  the  plants  that 
are  or  may  be  grown  to  provide  such  grazing  for  sheep 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Among  the  small 
cereals  are  rye,  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  speltz.  Among 
the  leguminous  cereals  are  the  Canada  pea,  the  cowpea, 
the  common  vetch  and  the  sand  vetch.  Among  those  of 
the  maize  and  sorghum  habit  of  growth  are  corn,  sweet 
sorghum  and  some  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums. 
Among  plants  of  the  Brassica  family  are  rape,  kale,  kohl- 
rabi, cabbage  and  white  mustard.  Among  the  tubers  are 
peanuts  and  sweet  potatoes,  and  among  field  roots  are 
turnips  and  rutabagas.  It  is  not  the  purpose  to  dwell 
here  on  the  methods  of  growing  these.  They  have  been 
discussed  at  some  length  in  other  works  from  the  author's 
pen,  more  especially  "Forage  Crops  Other  than  Grasses" 
and  "Cultivated  Crops."  The  object  sought  is  to  show 


PASTURES  AND    GRAZING   THEM    BY    SHEEP  I/ 1 

when  and  where  these  crops  may  be  used  to  supplement 
the  grass  pastures. 

Winter  rye,  much  the  best  of  the  small  cereals  to  fur- 
nish grazing  for  sheep,  is  most  useful  in  furnishing  graz- 
ing to  breeding  ewes  and  their  lambs  in  the  quite  early 
spring,  even  in  advance  of  succulent  grazing  furnished  by 
the  grass  pastures.  Cropping  it  closely  should  prevent 
all  danger  from  ergot,  which  in  some  areas  has  been 
known  to  produce  abortion  on  rich  soils.  But  it  is  some- 
times grown  also  to  furnish  grazing  in  the  autumn.  Win- 
ter wheat  in  certain  areas,  as  Kansas,  is  sometimes  grazed 
by  sheep  in  winter.  Spring  rye  and  all  the  other  small 
cereals  named  may  be  grown  if  necessary  to  provide  suc- 
culent grazing  in  the  early  summer,  but  for  such  a  use 
they  are  not  extensively  grown. 

The  Canada  pea  is  seldom  grown  by  itself  to  provide 
grazing  for  sheep,  but  it  is  in  combinations,  to  some  ex- 
tent, as  is  shown  below.  The  common  vetch  is  consid- 
erably grown  to  provide  grazing  for  sheep  in  proximity 
to  the  Pacific,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  it  may  come  to  be  freely  grown 
for  such  a  use.  Southward  from  where  highest  adapta- 
tion is  found  for  the  common  vetch,  the  sand  or  hairy 
vetch  grows  at  its  best,  even  as  far  south  as  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  when  sown  at  the  proper  season.  All  these  are 
sown  to  provide  succulent  grazing  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer,  and  the  Canada  pea  and  summer  vetch  are  also 
sometimes  sown  to  provide  food  for  fattening.  The  cow- 
pea  also  furnishes  good  supplemental  grazing. 

Indian  corn  may  under  certain  conditions  be  sown  to 
provide  summer  grazing  for  sheep,  but  it  is  better  suited 
to  furnish  food  on  which  sheep  may  be  fattened  while 
they  are  harvesting  the  corn.  Sweet  sorghum,  and  also 
the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  may  be  sown  to  provide 
midsummer  grazing,  and  thus  help  out  the  pastures;  espe- 
cially in  dry  areas  and  in  dry  seasons.  Sheep  are  not  so 
fond  of  such  grazing,  however,  as  of  that  furnished  by 


1^2  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

many  other  plants.  But  the  habit  of  growth  in  these 
sorghums  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  grazing,  as  they 
sprout  up  again  when  eaten  down. 

Among  plants  of  the  brassica  family,  rape  is  by  far 
the  most  extensively  grown  because  of  its  wide  distribu- 
tion and  high  excellence  in  providing  grazing  that  is 
highly  palatable  and  abundantly  nutritious.  Kale  in  cer- 
tain mild  areas  where  it  comes  safely  through  the  winter 
has  been  found  most  excellent  in  providing  succulent 
food  in  the  spring.  Kohlrabi  should  be  more  grown  for 
autumn  grazing  than  it  has  been  heretofore.  It  will  grow 
under  conditions  more  dry  than  those  suitable  for  the 
other  plants  of  this  family,  and,  as  with  rape,  the  entire 
food  portion  is  grown  above  ground.  Cabbage  has  special 
adaptation  to  furnishing  late  grazing,  even  later  than  that 
furnished  by  rape,  owing  to  the  power  which  the  heads 
have  to  resist  the  influence  of  frost.  White  mustard  has 
been  but  little  grown  in  this  country  to  provide  pasture 
for  sheep,  though  frequently  grown  in  Britain  for  such 
a  use.  It  is  valued  because  of  its  rapid  growth,  as 
in  a  rape  field  it  tends  to  prevent  bloat  in  the  sheep,  be- 
cause it  stimulates  the  early  mating  of  ewes  grazed  on 
it,  and  because  it  has  been  noticed  that  sheep  grazed  on 
it  usually  do  well  when  put  upon  other  good  grazing. 

Peanuts  and  sweet  potatoes  are  not  sown  primarily 
to  provide  grazing  for  sheep,  but  when  these  are  grown 
it  is  claimed  that  grazing  off  the  tops  is  a  cheap  way  of 
removing  them.  Sheep  are  fond  of  them  and  they  are 
nutritious. 

Turnips  are  more  grown  to  provide  grazing  on  the 
field  than  rutabagas.  For  such  a  use  the  seed  is  fre- 
quently sown,  as  rape  is  sometimes  sown,  along  with  that 
of  small  grain,  using  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre.  But  in  mild  winter  latitudes,  as  in  certain  of  the 
mountain  states  southward,  also  westward  along  the 
Pacific,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  why  tur- 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING   THEM    BY    SHEEP  173 

nips  and  rutabagas  may  not  be  grown  and  grazed  off 
by  sheep  as  they  are  in  Britain. 

Some  of  these  plants  may  be  profitably  grown  in  cer- 
tain combinations.  Those  which  may  be  thus  grown 
include  the  small  cereals,  non-leguminous,  and  those  also 
that  are  leguminous,  and  white  mustard.  Corn  and  the 
sorghums  are  not  much  suitable  for  such  combinations, 
owing  to  the  shade  which  they  produce  in  their  growth, 
but  they  may  be  grown  in  certain  mixtures  with  some 
degree  of  profit.  Rape  is  frequently  grown  in  various 
mixtures,  but  the  benefit  from  it  thus  grown,  except  in  a 
limited  number  of  instances,  is  still  problematical.  Good 
results  frequently  follow  from  growing  it  in  corn  fields 
at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation  given  to  the  corn. 

The  small  cereals  may  be  grown  in  any  kind  of  a 
combination  that  may  be  desired,  bearing  in  mind  that 
only  spring  varieties  may  be  sown  together  in  the  one 
case  and  winter  varieties  in  the  other.  Relative  cheap- 
ness of  seed  should  go  far  to  determine  the  varieties  that 
shall  be  sown.  Oats  is  a  favorite  grain  to  sow  along 
with  the  Canada  field  pea  and  the  common  vetch.  The 
sand  vetch  fits  in  well  with  the  winter  rye,  and  in  some 
localities  crimson  clover  added  is  a  further  improvement. 
White  mustard  fits  in  nicely  with  rape,  since  it  grows 
more  quickly  than  rape,  and  because  of  its  prominence  in 
advanced  growth  and  possibly  for  other  reasons  will  be 
much  consumed  by  the  sheep  when  they  begin  to  graze, 
and  it  is  believed  that  the  consumption  of  the  mustard 
tends  to  lessen  the  liability  in  the  rape  to  produce  bloat. 
Rape  and  fall  turnips  blend  nicely  when  sown  along  with 
grain  and  furnish  a  very  suitable  variety  in  the  grazing. 

The  succession  in  such  grazing  in  the  northern  states 
and  Canada  is  much  the  same.  It  begins  with  winter  rye. 
Then  follow  the  spring  cereals,  and  in  close  succession  on 
these  dwarf  Essex  rape,  which  by  variation  in  the  times 
of  sowing  may  be  made  to  provide  grazing  on  until  the 
advent  of  winter.  Corn  and  the  sorghums  furnish  sue- 


174  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

culent  grazing  only  through  the  warm  months  of  sum- 
mer. The  grazing  of  this  character  for  autumn  fatten- 
ing consists  mainly  of  dwarf  Essex  rape  and  mature  corn. 
The  succession  in  the  central  states  is  not  far  different, 
but  cowpeas  and  the  sand  vetch  are  more  used  in  these. 
The"  succession  in  the  southern  states  begins  with  such 
winter  grains  as  rye  and  the  sand  vetch.  Then  follow 
such  crops  as  corn  and  the  sorghums  and  cowpeas ;  also 
in  some  parts  the  velvet  bean,  not  heretofore  mentioned. 
The  cowpea  may  be  made  to  cover  much  of  the  entire 
summer  and  autumn.  The  autumn  fattening  foods  will 
be  corn,  mature,  and  possibly  soy  beans,  mature,  which 
have  not  been  previously  mentioned.  The  extent  to 
which  winter  grazing  on  rape,  kale  and  crimson  clover 
may  be  conducted  has  not  yet  been  fully  determined  in 
the  South.  There  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons, 
however,  why  these  crops  could  not  be  made  to  furnish 
excellent  winter  and  early  spring  grazing  for  sheep  and 
early  lambs  in  all  parts  of  the  South  where  winter  cab- 
bages can  be  grown  for  the  northern  market.  The  Canada 
field  peas,  and  also  the  common  vetch  sown  with  enough 
oats  to  sustain  them,  furnish  fattening  food  for  grazing 
in  certain  areas  of  the  mountain  states.  Field  roots,  of 
course,  may  not  be  grazed  in  the  fields  in  winter  where 
they  remain  frozen  for  any  length  of  time. 

Grass  pastures  for  winter  grazing — In  the  northern 
states  no  grass  or  clover  will  compare  with  blue  grass. 
Of  course,  this  question  is  not  of  much  practical  impor- 
tance when  the  snowfall  is  such  that  the  ground  is  sel- 
dom bare  in  the  winter.  In  other  areas  it  is  seldom  cov- 
ered much  of  the  winter,  and  in  these  the  character  of  the 
grazing  is  a  matter  of  much  importance.  When  such 
grazing  is  considerable  in  supply  it  may  furnish  a  large 
proportion  of  the  food,  and  what  is  almost  equally  im- 
portant, the  exercise  thus  given  to  the  breeding  ewes  is 
greatly  helpful  to  them  and  to  their  progeny.  Some  other 
grasses  are  good,  but  not  so  good  as  blue  grass,  since  they 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING   THEM    BY    SHEEP  1/5 

are  more  injured  with  the  frost.  Among  these  are  orchard 
grass  and  Russian  brome. 

In  some  areas  the  pasturing  of  meadows,  especially 
those  newly  sown  with  clover,  is  allowable,  as  in  some 
parts  of  Illinois  and  Iowa.  In  other  areas,  and  these  are 
greatly  in  the  majority,  such  grazing  would  be  most  de- 
structive to  the  meadows. 

On  the  western  ranges  the  native  grasses,  especially 
those  of  the  Buffalo  species,  have  very  high  adaptation 
for  winter  grazing.  Where  sheep  can  find  enough  of  these 
they  will  come  through  the  winter  in  good  form.  The 
damage  from  such  grazing  lies  in  the  sudden  storms  that 
arise  in  winter  in  much  of  the  range  country,  which  makes 
it  unsafe  to  allow  the  sheep  to  graze  far  away  from  the 
winter  quarters.  This  danger  can  be  partially  met  by 
fencing  in  pastures  not  distant  from  the  sheds  and  saving 
them  specially  for  such  grazing.  But  with  very  large 
flocks  this  is  not  entirely  practicable,  owing  to  the  very 
large  amount  of  the  grazing  that  would  be  required. 
These  grasses  cure  admirably  on  the  ground,  as  the  cur- 
ing is  brought  about  by  lack  of  moisture  in  the  absence 
of  frost.  In  some  of  the  western  mountain  valleys,  also, 
good  winter  grazing  may  be  furnished  by  growing  alfalfa, 
alsike  and  other  clover,  and  some  of  the  cultivated  grasses, 
in  admixture.  The  alfalfa  is  so  lacking  in  succulence 
then  that  the  danger  from  bloat  is  practically  eliminated. 

In  the  southern  states  the  list  of  grasses  suitable  for 
winter  grazing  is  not  so  large  as  in  the  North.  Bermuda, 
the  standard  grass  of  the  far  South,  does  not  furnish  graz- 
ing in  winter,  as  it  is  so  easily  killed  by  frost.  Bur  clover 
may  be  made  to  serve  a  good  purpose  and  each  locality 
has  some  native  grasses  adapted  to  its  needs,  that  so  far 
may  furnish  grazing.  But  the  South  has  highest  adapta- 
tion for  furnishing  supplementary  winter  grazing  from 
grain  of  various  kinds  and  plants  of  the  Brassica  family. 
These  include  winter  rye,  winter  oats,  vetches  and  rape. 


1/6  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

Grazing  sheep  on  grass  pastures — One  of  the  most 
important  things  about  grazing  sheep  on  grass  pastures 
is  to  adapt  the  breed  or  grade  to  the  character  of  the  pas- 
tures. It  would  seem  correct  to  say :  (i)  That  the  weight 
of  the  sheep  grazed  on  pastures  may  be  decreased  with  in- 
crease in  the  range  and  decrease  in  the  abundance  of  its 
production.  (2)  That  sheep  not  too  short  in  limb  and 
too  compact  in  form  can  graze  more  easily  on  rugged  and 
sparse  pastures  than  sheep  of  the  opposite  type.  (3) 
That  light  and  small  breeds  grazed  for  successive 
generations  on  abundant  pastures  will  increase  in  size, 
but  heavy  breeds  grazed  on  sparse  pastures  will  soon 
become  a  wreck.  The  reasons  for  the  above  will  be  obvi- 
ous. A  light  breed  will  readily  gather  food  on  sparse 
pastures.  This  a  heavy  breed  cannot  do,  because  of  its 
heaviness.  Nature  has  taught  this  lesson  plainly  in  the 
great  difference  in  the  size  of  the  mountain  breeds  and 
the  heavy  breeds  grown  on  seaside  marsh  lands. 

The  grazing  of  sheep  on  the  arable  farms  cannot  be 
successfully  conducted  without  fencing.  The  absence  of 
fences  on  so  many  of  the  grain  farms  of  the  west  and  the 
cost  of  constructing  these  is  a  great  hindrance  to  the 
more  general  introduction  of  sheep  onto  those  farms. 
Suitable  fencing  for  sheep  when  made  of  wire  is  a  little 
more  costly  than  will  suffice  for  cattle,  and  the  material 
more  commonly  used  in  future  for  such  fencing  will  be 
woven  wire.  When  barbed  wire  fences  are  made  for  cat- 
tle, posts  set  two  rods  distant,  and  three  wires,  will  make 
a  fence  sufficient  to  confine  cattle  not  materially  unruly. 
A  fence  of  the  same  material  to  confine  sheep  would  an- 
swer the  purpose  better  when  the  posts  are  set  more  fre- 
quently, and  it  would  call  for  not  less  than  five  barb 
wires. 

One  of  the  best  forms  of  fencing  for  sheep  is  made  of 
some  kind  of  woven  wire  with  one  or  more  strands  of 
barb  wire  strung  on  the  posts  above  the  woven  wire. 
Such  a  fence  should  usually  be  erected  on  an  elevation 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING   THEM    BY   SHEEP  177 

or  ridge  made  by  turning  two,  four  or  six  furrows  toward 
a  center,  the  number  of  the  furrows  being  dependent  to 
some  extent  on  the  kind  of  plow  used.  These  furrows 
should  be  smoothed  nicely  so  as  to  make  a  fence  bottom 
without  cavities  in  it.  The  posts  should  be  set  at  one 
rod  distant,  or  if  set  at  two  rods,  a  stake  should  be  driven 
down  firmly  equidistant  between  the  posts  and  coming  up 
as  high  as  the  top  of  the  woven  wire,  which  when 
stretched  should  be  stapled  to  it.  It  should  be  unneces- 
sary to  add  that  these  stakes  should  be  made  of  some 
kind  of  wood  that  lasts  well.  The  woven  wire,  of  which 
there  are  many  kinds  on  the  market,  several  of  which  are 
good,  should  not  be  less  than  30  inches.  It  should  be 
stretched  along  the  posts  near  the  ground.  Above  the 
woven  wire  should  be  at  least  one  barbed  wire,  approx- 
imately 8  or  9  inches  above  the  woven  wire.  Such  a  fence 
will  ordinarily  restrain  sheep,  but  it  may  not  be  wise  to 
have  it  thus  low  if  horses  graze  on  the  other  side,  and  if 
dogs  or  wolves  are  to  be  kept  out  it  must  be  higher.  It 
would  seem  safe  to  say,  however,  that  a  dog  or  a  wolf 
will  seldom  try  to  clear  a  barb  wire  fence  higher  than  say 
4  or  5  feet.  To  fence  securely  against  dogs  and  wolves 
see  page  372. 

Fencing  in  sheep  by  means  of  hedges  may  still  be 
regarded  in  the  experimental  stage.  In  the  northern 
states  no  hedge  plant  has  been  found  hitherto  that  is  in 
all  respects  completely  satisfactory.  That  which  has 
proved  most  satisfactory  is  the  osage  orange.  Possibly 
when  our  busy  American  farmers  can  find  more  time  to 
properly  care  for  osage  orange  hedges,  they  will  prove 
more  satisfactory.  The  southern  states  have  a  promising 
hedge  plant  for  southern  latitudes  in  the  Citrus  trifoliata, 
but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  much  used  for  that  pur- 
pose, owing  probably  to  the  comparative  cheapness  of 
wood  in  furnishing  fencing  material. 

The  closeness  of  the  grazing  by  sheep  that  should 
be  sought  or  avoided  is  influenced  by  the  kind  of  grazing, 


1/8  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

the  season  of  the  grazing,  the  character  of  the  weather 
and  the  desire  to  furnish  winter  grazing  from  grass  pas- 
tures. It  must  be  conceded  that  sheep  are  fondest  of 
short  and  tender  grazing  and  that  such  grazing  is  good 
for  them.  The  fact  must  also  be  recognized  that  when 
grass  is  eaten  very  short,  it  is  usually  less  able  to  produce 
so  abundantly  as  when  it  has  more  leaf  growth.  Between 
these  two  conflicting  facts  the  flockmaster  has  to  de- 
termine the  course  that  he  must  aim  to  pursue. 

Coarse  grazing  should,  as  a  rule,  be  closely  grazed 
for  the  reason,  first,  that  sheep  will  not  eat  it  at  an  ad- 
vanced stage  of  growth,  and  second,  that  it  has  greater 
power  to  grow  when  in  season  than  the  small  and  fine 
grasses.  As  a  rule  grazing  close  in  the  spring  is  more 
allowable  than  the  same  in  the  autumn,  as  in  the  spring 
the  season  of  growth  is  nearly  all  yet  ahead,  whereas  in 
the  autumn  close  grazing  leaves  the  fields  so  bare  that  the 
grasses  in  the  same  start  but  slowly  in  the  spring.  Dur- 
ing seasons  that  are  moist  growth  is  much  more  vigor- 
ous than  in  dry  seasons;  hence  close  grazing  is  so  far 
more  allowable.  When  winter  grazing  is  to  be  furnished 
in  abundant  quantity,  the  sheep  grazed  on  the  pastures 
may  eat  them  down  in  the  spring,  but  they  should  then 
be  removed  during  the  remainder  of  the  season.  Whether 
sheep  and  other  stock  should  be  grazed  together  under 
ordinary  conditions  of  grazing  is  a  question  that  has  given 
rise  to  some  controversy.  The  argument  may  be  stated 
thus :  The  chief  of  the  reasons  against  grazing  sheep 
with  other  stock  are:  (i)  That  sheep  by  their  continued 
movement  over  the  pasture  soil  it  more  or  less,  which  so 
far  detracts  from  the  relish  which  cattle  have  for  it.  (2) 
That  when  the  pasture  is  closely  stocked,  the  sheep  are 
able  to  get  the  lion's  share  of  the  grazing,  because  of  the 
close  habit  of  grazing  that  characterizes  them.  The  cat- 
tle grazing  with  them  suffer  accordingly.  (3)  When 
sheep  graze  with  swine,  the  latter,  when  the  grazing  is  at 
all  close,  soil  much  of  it,  so  that  it  becomes  offensive  to 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING   THEM    BY    SHEEP  179 

sheep,  and  in  rare  instances  brood  sows  in  heat  may  hurt 
the  lambs.  (4)  When  sheep  graze  with  colts,  the  latter 
are  much  prone,  through  mere  play,  to  chase  the  former, 
to  their  injury.  The  chief  of  the  reasons  in  favor  of  such 
grazing  are:  (i)  The  grazing  that  follows  is  more  com- 
plete, since  one  class  of  the  stock  eats  more  or  less  what 
another  class  rejects.  (2)  Sheep  grazing  in  a  pasture 
are  a  great  aid  in  preventing  increase  in  weeds  in  the 
same.  (3)  It  is  frequently  much  more  convenient  to  graze 
stock  together  than  separate.  The  following  deductions 
from  the  above  would  seem  legitimate:  (i)  Such  grazing 
is  admissible  and  may  be  commendable  when  the  range 
is  large  and  the  food  is  plentiful ;  but  (2)  it  should  not  be 
much  practiced  when  the  range  is  small,  and  not  to  any 
extent  when  the  supplies  of  the  food  are  short. 

Protecting  sheep  from  substances  that  adhere  to  the 
wool  is  a  matter  of  much  importance.  While  these  sub- 
stances, usually  designated  burs,  are  of  various  kinds,  as 
burdocks,  cockleburs  and  sandburs,  burdocks  are  most 
frequently  in  evidence.  They  entrench  themselves  in  by- 
places  in  the  pastures,  and  unless  combated  by  man  will 
continue  to  produce  fresh  plants  from  year  to  year.  This 
cosmopolitan  weed  apparently  grows  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  yet  its  complete  eradica- 
tion in  a  pasture  or  elsewhere  is  very  simple.  Cutting  a 
plant  below  the  crown  at  any  time  after  it  has  begun  to 
grow  and  by  any  kind  of  an  implement  will  cause  its 
death.  Mowing  above  ground,  even  after  the  seedheads 
have  begun  to  form,  will  not  stay  reproduction,  as  im- 
mediately short  seed  stalks  at  once  spring  up,  and  will, 
if  unmolested,  mature  seeds  within  a  few  weeks.  The 
cocklebur  is  the  great  occupant  of  fields  sown  to  grain  or 
planted  to  corn.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  sheep  from 
such  grazing  when  the  fleeces  become  a  mat,  as  it  were, 
of  burs.  It  not  only  disfigures  the  form  of  the  sheep  be- 
yond expression,  but  greatly  discounts  the  value  of  the 
fleece.  When  plants  that  injure  the  character  of  the  wool, 


l8o  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

are  allowed  to  grow  from  year  to  year  in  a  permanent 
pasture,  the  owner  is  blameworthy,  as  usually  they  can 
be  eradicated  without  great  labor. 

The  ideal  method  of  grazing  grass  pastures  is  that 
which  divides  them  into  fields,  so  that  alternation  in  the 
grazing  may  be  possible.  This  provides  grazing  with 
more  freshness  and  tenderness  in  it  than  would  be  possi- 
ble in  uninterrupted  grazing.  It  also  tends  to  prevent 
eating  some  parts  of  the  pasture  close  and  continuing  to 
graze  on  these  to  the  neglect  of  grazing  on  other  por- 
tions. The  objection  to  this  plan  is  the  cost  of  the  fenc- 
ing. Where  keeping  sheep  is  a  leading  interest,  the  aim 
should  be  to  provide  such  fencing,  as  in  its  absence  graz- 
ing best  adapted  to  all  the  different  seasons  cannot  be 
furnished.  Pastures  grazed  in  the  spring  will  still  have 
time  to  furnish  suitable  autumn  grazing  when  given  a 
period  of  rest  from  grazing  in  the  summer.  Pastures 
grazed  for  a  longer  period  in  the  spring  will  still  have 
time  to  cover  themselves  with  grass  for  winter  and  early 
spring  grazing.  Blue  grass  in  the  North  and  meadow 
fescue  in  the  South  are  probably  the  two  best  grasses  to 
provide  such  grazing.  The  protection  given  by  the  old 
grass  greatly  aids  early  growth  in  the  new,  and  the  two 
eaten  together  are  more  suitable  than  either  eaten  alone. 

The  renovation  of  pastures  grazed  by  sheep,  at  least 
on  the  arable  farm,  should  not  be  difficult.  About  the 
only  sure  means  of  renovating  those  of  the  open  range 
is  to  fence  them  off  and  let  them  rest  until,  maturing  for 
a  sufficient  length  of  time,  they  seed  themselves.  The 
renovation  of  the  pastures  of  the  arable  farm  may  be 
brought  about:  (i)  Simply  by  in  some  way  turning  open 
the  surface ;  (2)  by  sowing  seed  of  certain  kinds  on  them 
when  they  are  thus  torn  open ;  and  (3)  by  means  of  direct 
fertilization. 

Sheep  pastures  only  require  renovation  by  the  first 
method  when  they  become  sodbound.  Such  a  condition 
is  most  liable  in  quack  grass  should  it  be  used  in  provid- 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING   THEM    BY   SHEEP  l8l 

ing  pasture.  Next  to  this,  probably  is  Russian  brome, 
and  after  Russian  brome,  Kentucky  blue  grass.  The  best 
method  of  opening  the  soil  in  the  case  of  quack  grass  is 
with  the  plow.  The  best  method  of  renovating  the  other 
grasses  named  is  to  run  a  good  disk  over  them  in  two 
directions  in  the  early  spring  when  the  frost  has  left  the 
surface  for  but  a  few  inches,  and  then  to  smooth  them 
down  with  a  harrow. 

When  additional  seed  is  sown,  it  may  consist  in  part 
of  timothy  or  other  grasses,  but  more  commonly  of  some 
variety  or  varieties  of  clover,  sown  with  the  understand- 
ing that  their  duration  shall  be  more  or  less  transient. 
Their  continuance  is  influenced  by  the  character  of  the 
soil.  Meanwhile  they  add  to  the  value  of  the  grazing. 

As  pastures  grazed  by  sheep  are  rendered  richer  in 
available  fertility  as  a  result  of  the  grazing,  the  attempt 
to  fertilize  them  by  applications  is  seldom  made.  There 
may  be  times  when  it  is  not  only  legitimate  but  com- 
mendable, as,  for  instance,  when  the  ground  is  being  pre- 
pared for  a  crop  to  follow  when  the  pastures  are  broken, 
that  calls  for  a  rich  soil  to  produce  maximum  crops. 
Sheep  fed  heavily  on  grain  rich  in  nitrogen,  as  oilcake, 
will  rapidly  add  to  the  fertility  of  the  land.  In  some  in- 
stances enrichment  may  come  incidentally,  as  when 
sheep  graze  on  rape  and  have  access  to  a  grass  pasture. 
Usually  they  rest  much  on  the  latter  and  so  enrich  it. 

Grazing  sheep  on  supplementary  pastures — The  chief 
of  the  requisites  to  make  such  grazing  successful  are  the 
following:  (i)  Ample  fencing,  movable  or  permanent; 
(2)  a  reserve  grass  pasture,  where  practicable,  to  be  used 
only  when  needed ;  and  (3)  conveniences  for  giving  addi- 
tional food  and  water  if  necessary.  The  necessity  for 
these  requisites  increases  with  increase  in  the  extent  to 
which  supplementary  grazing  is  used.  Where  supple- 
mentary grazing  is  furnished  by  such  plants  as  rape  or 
turnips  sown  with  the  grain,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to 
make  any  marked  change  in  the  management  from  that 


l8j  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

ordinarily  practiced,  but  it  should  be  the  aim  to  have  a  re- 
serve grass  pasture  for  reasons  given  later  (see  page  183). 

The  necessity  for  additional  fencing  increases  with 
the  intensity  of  the  conditions  of  the  supplementary  graz- 
ing. Where  the  attempt  is  made  to  keep  sheep  almost 
entirely  on  such  grazing,  a  plan  that  in  many  instances 
is  entirely  feasible,  more  or  less  of  additional  fencing 
should  be  provided.  When  the  flock  is  large,  it  would 
probably  be  more  economical  in  the  end  to  have  the 
fences  permanent  that  inclose  these  crops.  Three  to  four 
fields  should  be  inclosed,  and  easy  of  access.  These  are 
necessary  to  furnish  succession  in  grazing,  as  each  can 
usually  be  made  to  grow  two  crops  of  grazing  yearly. 

Where  the  flock  is  not  large,  the  grazing  may  be  fur- 
nished by  one  field,  long  and  narrow,  if  it  can  be  so 
secured,  but  it  may  serve  the  purpose  better  to  have  two 
such  fields  separated  by  a  lane.  Narrowness  in  such  in- 
stances lessens  the  necessity  for  using  large  amounts  of 
movable  fencing,  which  when  in  use,  extends  across 
rather  than  lengthwise.  It  is  also  an  advantage  in  plow- 
ing when  the  cross  fences  are  not  in  use. 

Many  kinds  of  movable  fencing  have  been  introduced 
and  each  is  possessed  of  more  or  less  merit,  but  none  of 
these  is  superior  to  that  now  described.  As  has  also  been 
shown  in  Chapter  II,  it  consists  of  panels  made  of  wood, 
which,  when  in  place,  are  held  so  by  the  headpiece.  Each 
panel  is  composed  of  three  boards  4x1  inches,  and  a 
fourth  one  at  the  bottom  6  x  I  inches.  The  boards  are 
usually  made  12  feet  long.  Across  these  horizontal 
boards  are  nailed  three  slats  4x1  inches.  The  end  slats 
are  nailed  on  the  same  side  of  the  horizontal  boards,  and 
back  6  inches  from  the  ends  of  the  same.  The  middle  slat 
on  the  other  side  of  the  boards  is  equally  distant  from 
the  ends.  The  ends  of  the  second  board  from  the  top  are 
cut  off  flush  with  the  outside  ends  of  the  crossbars.  The 
spacing  between  the  boards  commencing  at  the  bottom 


PASTURES   AND   GRAZING   THEM    BY    SHEEP  183 

is  6,  6^4  and  7)4  inches  respectively.  The  height  of  the 
panel  is  3  feet  2  inches. 

The  headpiece  consists  of  three  strips  or  boards, 
nailed  together  so  as  to  form  a  triangle.  The  bottom 
piece  made  of  material  6  x  I  inches,  is  3  feet  6  inches  long 
on  the  ground  side.  The  two  upright  pieces  that  con- 
verge, 4x1  inches,  are  4  feet  long,  and  below  they  are 
nailed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  sole-piece.  Above,  they 
cross  each  other  about  6  inches  from  the  ends.  The 
notches  cut  above  and  below,  as  shown  in  the  drawing, 
are  2  inches  wide  and  3  inches  deep.  When  in  place  the 
corresponding  slats  of  the  panels  just  fill  the  notches 
which  keep  them  in  position.  The  nails  used  are  3^ 
inches  long  of  the  wrought  or  wire  type  and  should  be 
well  clinched  when  in  place. 

Such  a  fence  is  easily  set  up  or  taken  down  and  may 
be  quickly  moved.  It  should  be  made  of  lumber,  pref- 
erably strong  and  light  and  that  will  not  warp.  If  handled 
carefully  it  should  last  many  years  with  but  little  repair, 
but  if  used  roughly  the  duration  of  its  usefulness  will  be 
short.  Its  weakest  point  probably,  is  liability  to  shift 
with  the  wind.  To  guard  against  this  a  small  piece  of 
board  sharpened  below  is  driven  down  several  inches 
into  the  ground.  It  may  be  driven  down  beside  the  head- 
piece, or  it  may  follow  the  slant  of  the  same.  In  either 
case  a  nail  is  driven  through  this  piece  of  board  and  into 
the  headpiece,  and  it  should  be  on  the  windward  side. 
These  stakes  are  not  difficult  to  loosen  when  the  fence  is 
to  be  removed.  A  number  of  panels  of  such  fencing  will 
be  found  useful  on  any  farm  where  many  sheep  are  kept 
and  during  all  seasons. 

A  reserve  grass  pasture  is  a  great  convenience  when 
sheep  are  much  grazed  on  supplementary  pastures.  It 
furnishes  a  place:  (i)  On  which  to  graze  the  sheep  when 
the  supplementary  pastures  are  wet  with  rain  or  dew; 
and  (2)  on  which  to  graze  them  for  days  even  in  succes- 
sion, should  the  supplementary  pastures  not  be  ready. 


184  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

They  also  furnish  a  change  that  tends  to  reduce  or  en- 
tirely prevent  scouring,  the  frequent  accompaniment  of 
grazing  on  supplementary  pastures.  When  sheep  graze 
on  such  pastures  that  have  made  much  growth  while  they 
are  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  they  soil  the  grazing  with  their 
feet,  break  much  of  it  down  and  may  also  impact  some 
kinds  of  soil. 

There  may  be  instances  when  such  pastures  cannot 
be  furnished.  There  may  be  other  instances  when,  in  the 
hope  of  more  effectively  combating  stomach  worms  and 
other  forms  of  parasitic  life,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the 
sheep  away  from  old  pasture  grounds.  In  such  instances 
it  would  be  necessary  to  use  the  sheds  as  a  refuge  for  the 
sheep  when  not  on  the  supplementary  pastures.  At  such 
times  it  may  be  necessary  to  feed  them  in  the  sheds 
throughout  the  continuance  of  storms,  and  more  or  less 
at  other  times.  Should  this  be  necessary,  no  more  con- 
venient place  could  be  secured  for  such  feeding  or  for  provid- 
ing water,  nor  would  it  be  possible  to  furnish  sheds  in 
better  form  than  through  the  medium  of  the  sheds. 

Benefits  from  supplemental  grazing — Prominent 
among  the  benefits  from  supplemental  grazing  for  sheep 
are:  (i)  Aid  in  removing  parasites;  (2)  increase  in  pro- 
duction from  a  given  area ;  (3)  rendering  aid  in  destroy- 
ing weeds ;  and  (4)  the  effect  on  fertilization.  These  will 
be  considered  further,  and  also  some  of  the  objections  to 
the  system. 

The  all-important  question  of  parasites  in  sheep  is  yet 
but  imperfectly  understood,  more  especially  with  refer- 
ence to  the  complete  life  history  of  some  of  these.  Until 
this  is  known  it  is  probable  that  the  very  best  methods  of 
combating  some  of  these  will  not  be  understood.  It  has 
been  quite  well  established,  however,  that  when  ewes  and 
lambs  are  much  sustained  on  freshly  sown  supplementary 
pastures,  especially  in  the  spring,  and  when  they  are  kept 
away  from  old  pasture  grounds  in  the  meantime,  the 
lambs  suffer  much  less  from  such  parasites  and  tape- 


PASTURES  AND   GRAZING   THEM    BY    SHEEP  185 

worms  and  stomach  worms  than  when  managed  in  the 
ordinary  way. 

The  increase  in  the  return  of  wool  and  mutton  comes 
from  the  increase  in  the  food  grown  on  a  given  area  when 
it  is  thus  grown.  The  food  furnished  from  a  certain  area 
sown  to  rape,  for  instance,  may  be  several  times  as  much 
as  would  be  obtained  from  the  same  or  an  equal  area  of 
old  grass  pasture.  The  extent  of  the  increase  will  con- 
tinually vary  with  the  different  conditions,  but  the  fact 
that  usually  there  is  increase  should  draw  favorable  at- 
tention to  the  growing  of  these  crops.  That  such  addi- 
tional increase  will  more  than  offset  the  additional  cost 
of  labor  is  also  true  in  many  instances ;  in  fact,  in  a  great 
majority  of  these  should  constitute  a  further  claim  for 
such  attention. 

The  aid  thus  furnished  in  destroying  weeds  is  most 
substantial  and  far  reaching.  Especially  is  this  true 
should  the  land  thus  used  be  confined  to  the  growing  of 
catch  crops  for  two  or  three  successive  years,  and  it  is 
more  emphatically  true  with  the  increase  in  the  number 
of  the  crops  grown  and  grazed.  The  results  claimed  fol- 
low from  the  influence  which  frequent  plowing  has  on  the 
germination  of  weed  seeds  lying  in  the  soil  and  on  the 
destruction  of  weeds  by  burial,  also  through  the  crossing 
of  the  same  while  being  grazed.  The  eradication  of  such 
annuals  as  wild  mustard  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  great 
increase  in  germination  resulting  over  ordinary  methods 
of  cultivation.  Each  seed  thus  germinated  grows  a  plant 
that  is  consumed.  The  eradication  of  biennials  becomes 
easy  and  sure  through  their  burial.  The  eradication  of 
perennials  in  much  less  sure,  owing  to  the  way  in  which 
they  multiply  in  the  soil ;  but  if  some  of  the  supple- 
mentary crops  grown,  as  rape,  should  be  grown  and  cul- 
tivated, all  forms  of  perennials  treated  thus  would  be 
greatly  lessened. 

This  method  of  fighting  weeds,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
author,  will  be  very  efficacious.  The  opinion  thus  given 


1 86  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

is  based  to  a  considerable  extent  on  his  own  personal 
experience.  It  should  also  prove  one  of  the  cheapest 
methods  of  fighting  weeds  that  can  be  devised  in  areas 
where  sheep  are  an  important  factor  in  agriculture.  But 
while  land  is  so  abundant  such  intensive  methods  of  pro- 
viding food  for  sheep  will  probably  be  not  much  prac- 
ticed. The  little  labor  involved  in  keeping  sheep  on  grass 
pastures  is  one  of  its  strongest  recommendations,  while 
the  system  outlined  involves  much  labor.  It  is  just  a 
question  for  those  who  are  willing  to  pay  the  price. 

The  influence  on  fertilization  is  favorable.  This 
arises,  first,  from  the  fact  that  the  food  grown  is  con- 
sumed on  the  land ;  second,  from  the  fertility  brought  up 
from  the  subsoil  in  the  crops  grown,  a  large  part  of  which 
goes  back  again  on  the  cultivated  strata ;  and,  third,  from 
the  growing  of  such  crops  as  cowpeas,  soy  beans  and 
other  quick-growing  legumes  to  provide  grazing.  True, 
there  is  some  fertility  removed  in  the  flesh  and  the  wool 
produced,  but  experience  has  shown  that  lands  treated 
thus  produce  bountiful  crops  for  a  time  subsequently  to 
such  treatment;  hence  the  inference  would  seem  legiti- 
mate that  there  was  increase  in  available  fertility  to  more 
than  offset  the  decrease  resulting  from  what  was  re- 
moved in  the  flesh  and  wool. 

There  are  some  serious  difficulties  to  be  met  and 
overcome  by  those  who  graze  sheep  thus  intensively.  One 
of  these  is  the  labor  involved.  Under  existing  conditions 
that  is  one  of  the  most  serious,  but  when  a  family  is 
growing  up  of  an  age  to  render  help,  the  difficulty  is  so 
far  removed.  A  second  is  the  cost  of  the  fencing  called 
for.  A  third  is  the  increase  in  land  required  to  grow 
crops  thus  in  quick  succession,  and  a  fourth  is  the  im- 
perative demand  made  upon  the  team  labor  of  the  farm 
when  it  can  ill  be  spared  from  other  work.  The  fact  re- 
mains, nevertheless,  that  the  production  can  be  increased 
enormously  when  sheep  are  largely  grazed  on  such  sup- 
plemental foods. 


CHAPTER  X 
FATTENING  SHEEP  WHILE  GRAZING 

The  points  chiefly  dwelt  upon  in  Chapter  X  are  the 
following:  (i)  Sheep  finished  on  grass  pastures  without 
grain ;  (2)  Sheep  finished  on  grass  pastures  with  grain ; 
(3)  Finishing  on  western  grain  fields ;  (4)  Finishing  on 
rape;  (5)  Finishing  on  corn;  (6)  Finishing  on  peas;  (7) 
Finishing  on  field  roots  ;  and  (8)  Finishing  on  other  crops. 

Finishing  on  grass  without  grain — Not  many  de- 
cades ago  more  sheep,  it  is  believed,  were  sent  to  the  mar- 
kets from  the  pastures  without  grain  than  reached  it 
through  all  other  channels.  This  condition  is  rapidly 
changing,  owing  to  the  following  among  other  causes  :  (i) 
Farmers  are  coming  to  know  more  and  more  about  the 
possible  profit  from  finishing  range  sheep  on  their  farms, 
both  in  the  fields  and  in  the  sheds;  (2)  the  effect  in  ad- 
vancing prices  inclines  ranchmen  to  favor  selling  as 
stockers  rather  than  for  slaughter ;  and  (3)  the  sharp  dis- 
crimination in  the  prices  paid  encourages  the  finishing  of 
sheep  in  good  form. 

When  sheep  are  finished  on  grass  pastures  only,  the 
character  of  the  mutton  is  much  influenced  by  the  variety 
of  the  grazing.  It  is  a  foregone  conclusion  that,  to  obtain 
a  juicy  carcass,  it  must  be  finished  on  food  with  more  or 
less  succulence  in  it.  It  is  not  to  be  expected,  therefore, 
that  mutton  finished  on  dry  western  ranges  after  mid- 
summer and  without  other  food  than  the  range  furnishes 
would  be  lacking  in  juiciness,  however  excellent  its  other 
qualities  may  be.  The  large  quantities  of  mutton  that 
came  from  this  source  would  seem  to  be  so  far  respon- 
sible for  the  comparatively  low  estimate  put  upon  mut- 
ton by  the  masses  of  our  people  until  recent  years.  It 
would  not  be  possible  to  build  up  a  high  national  reputa- 

187 


l88  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING    OF   SHEEP 

tion  for  mutton  finished  only  on  grass  pastures.  But  it 
does  not  follow  that  good  mutton  may  not  be  grown  on 
grasses  only,  as  is  shown  below. 

The  pastures  best  adapted  to  the  production  of  good 
mutton  are  those  which  combine  palatability,  succulence 
and  nutrition  in  the  highest  degree.  This  means  that  the 
best  quality  of  mutton  finished  only  on  grasses  will  come 
from  areas  comparatively  moist,  as  these  only  can  main- 
tain the  requisite  succulence  in  the  grasses.  Blue  grass 
is  possessed  of  the  requisite  qualities  in  a  marked  degree 
for  making  good  mutton.  Along  with  clover  of  sufficient 
maturity  it  should  make  mutton  possessed  of  good  finish. 
While  succulence  is  essential  in  the  grazing  for  the  pro- 
duction of  juicy  mutton,  over-succulence  retards  fatten- 
ing, which  explains  why  sheep  are  usually  in  a  lower  con- 
dition at  the  close  of  an  unusually  wet  season  than  at  the 
close  of  one  possessed  of  average  moisture. 

Something  depends  on  the  breed  or  grade  of  the 
sheep  and  also  on  the  age,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
adaptation  for  such  finishing.  Sheep  small  in  size  rela- 
tively will  make  a  better  finish  usually  than  those  that 
are  large,  their  lightness  favoring  easy  movement.  For 
a  similar  reason  sheep  short  of  maturity  will  have  some 
advantage  over  sheep  fully  matured,  and  more  especially 
over  old  sheep.  It  is  also  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
sheep  not  accustomed  to  a  grain  supplement  will  also 
fare  better  under  such  conditions  than  those  that  have 
been  much  used  to  such  a  supplement. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  mutton  made  from  grass 
pastures  only  on  the  arable  farm  is  superior  in  juiciness  as 
a  rule  to  that  made  on  the  open  range,  the  reason  for 
which  will  be  obvious.  It  has  also  been  found  that  the 
highest  quality  in  such  mutton  comes  from  sheep  kept 
in  limited  numbers  in  proportion  to  the  pasture.  The 
sheep  are  thus  enabled  to  gather  food  in  much  variety 
and  such  as  they  relish  most,  hence  the  good  finish  which 
they  soon  make  and  its  high  quality.  In  this  way  nearly 


FATTENING   SHEEP    WHILE   GRAZING  189 

all  farmers  may  provide  for  their  tables  a  luxury  in  the 
meat  line  by  simply  keeping  a  small  band  of  sheep  to 
gather  food,  much  of  which  but  for  their  presence  would 
go  to  waste.  More  sheep  could  be  used  in  this  way,  and 
with  much  advantage  to  the  owners,  than  are  now  found 
in  all  the  United  States. 

Finishing  on  grass  with  grain — The  attempt  to  finish 
sheep  that  have  been  carried  through  the  winter  on  grass 
pastures,  as  cattle  are  frequently  fattened,  is  not  of  fre- 
quent occurrence.  That  it  is  not  arises  probably  from  the 
following  among  other  reasons:  (i)  Except  as  lambs 
sheep  are  seldom  sold  for  slaughter  from  the  early  pas- 
tures, and  the  later  pastures  are  generally  more  or  less  sup- 
plementary; (2)  the  quick  fertilizing  of  the  land  has  sel- 
dom been  sought  by  feeding  grain  to  sheep  on  grass  pas- 
tures ;  and  (3)  it  has  been  found  that  they  can  be  fattened 
more  cheaply  and  satisfactorily  when  the  grass  pastures 
are  supplemented  by  other  grazing,  as  rape,  roots,  corn  or 
peas.  The  materials  for  early  finishing  on  grass  are  often 
scarce,  as  lambs  are  usually  sold  under  the  age  of  one 
year,  or  before  the  new  grass  comes,  and  the  dams  are 
employed  at  that  season  in  nursing  their  lambs  except  in 
the  case  of  those  that  may  have  suckled  early  or  milk 
lambs. 

That  direct  profit  will  result  from  feeding  grain  to 
ewes  that  are  nursing  early  lambs,  while  they  nurse  them 
and  subsequently,  though  on  good  grass  pastures,  can 
scarcely  be  doubted.  When  the  ewes  also  are  to  be  sold 
as  soon  as  they  can  be  made  ready  for  the  market,  any 
loss  of  flesh  should  be  prevented  by  such  feeding  when 
the  change  is  made  from  the  shed  to  the  pastures.  That 
direct  profit  will  result  from  feeding  wethers  grain  under 
such  conditions  has  not  been  determined  apparently  by 
experiment.  The  chances  are  against  it.  But  the  full 
return  from  such  feeding  of  grain  must  include  the  manu- 
rial  benefits  given  to  the  land. 

The  wisdom  of  grazing  and  even  of  fattening  sheep  in 


I9O  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

orchards  under  proper  conditions  of  management  is  not  to 
be  questioned.  No  cheaper  method  of  fertilizing  the  orchard 
can  be  -devised.  The  following  are  among  the  benefits  from 
such  grazing  and  feeding :  ( 1 )  The  sheep  consume  the  grass, 
weeds  and  young  sprouts  around  the  trees.  (2)  They  con- 
sume all  the  fallen  fruit  and  will  thus  destroy  all  insect 
life  which  it  may  contain.  The  injury  from  the  presence 
of  the  codling  moth  in  apple  orchards  may  thus  be  greatly 
reduced.  (3)  They  distribute  fertilizer  in  a  form  that  is 
readily  available  and  proportionate  to  the  food  given  to 
them.  (4)  They  break  up  the  top  soil  more  or  less  ac- 
cording to  the  conditions  present,  and  thus  aid  in  the 
retention  of  soil  moisture.  Except  in  the  case  of  old  trees, 
however,  which  carry  rough  bark,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  protect  the  trunks  of  the  trees  by  putting  around 
them  loose  wire  netting.  The  sheep  will  also  trim  back 
the  tips  of  the  fruit-laden  limbs  that  may  come  within 
their  reach,  and  also  consume  the  fruit  which  they  carry 
if  grazed  long  enough  in  the  orchard. 

Whether  the  sheep  are  simply  carried  through  the 
season  or  are  prepared  for  the  block  where  fertilization  is 
sought,  they  must  be  given  supplemental  food.  To  meet 
the  former  condition,  wheat  bran  and  oilcake  should  be 
freely  fed,  since  both  are  rich  in  valuable  fertilizing  ele- 
ments ;  and  to  suit  the  latter  condition  the  aim  should 
be  to  feed  freely  corn  and  oilcake,  the  former  being  given 
to  promote  quick  fattening.  The  grain  troughs  should 
be  distributed  in  various  parts  of  the  orchard  or  fre- 
quently moved  to  promote  the  even  distribution  of  the 
manure.  Water  must  be  supplied,  and  salt  at  all  times. 

The  number  of  the  sheep  thus  grazed  on  an  acre  may 
be  regulated  by  the  amount  and  character  of  the  food 
given.  Some  regard,  however,  must  be  had  to  the  pasture 
which  the  orchard  furnishes  when  soiling  food  is  not  fur- 
nished. The  fallen  fruit  is  not  of  much  value  as  a  fat- 
tener  because  of  its  immaturity  and  acidity,  and  when 
sheep  are  first  introduced  into  orchards  it  may  be  neces- 


FATTENING   SHEEP   WHILE   GRAZING  l$I 

sary  to  introduce  them  cautiously  lest  digestive  derange- 
ment should  result. 

Finishing  on  western  grain  fields — On  western  grain 
fields  a  large  amount  of  valuable  food  for  sheep  remains 
after  the  crop  has  been  removed.  It  remains  in  the  form 
of  fallen  heads  during  the  processes  of  harvesting  and  in 
the  form  of  weeds  of  many  kinds,  which  in  many  in- 
stances carpet  the  ground  because  of  the  numbers  in 
which  they  are  present.  In  many  instances  also  they  con- 
tain weed  seeds  which  contain  fattening  properties,  as 
those  of  wild  buckwheat.  If  given  the  opportunity  sheep 
will  gather  and  consume  many  of  the  fallen  heads,  much 
of  the  matured  weed  seeds,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
herbage  that  grows  on  the  ground  amid  the  stubbles. 
The  area  that  may  be  thus  grazed  is  very  large,  but  such 
grazing  is  not  without  its  difficulties. 

Among  the  difficulties  to  be  met  the  following  are 
prominent :  (i)  The  almost  entire  lack  of  fencing  makes  it 
necessary  to  maintain  a  herder  during  the  period  of  graz- 
ing. (2)  The  harvest,  especially  in  northern  areas,  is  fre- 
quently so  late  that  the  duration  of  the  period  for  graz- 
ing is  short,  too  short  in  many  instances  to  put  a  good 
finish  on  the  sheep  or  lambs  before  the  ground  freezes. 
(3)  As  the  ground  is  to  grow  grain  the  following  season, 
the  aim  is  to  plow  it  before  winter,  and  to  accomplish 
this  it  is  necessary  that  the  plowing  be  begun  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  grain  has  been  harvested.  Nevertheless 
very  large  flocks  of  sheep  have  been  thus  grazed  with 
profit  to  the  owners,  since  the  pastures  are  obtained  with- 
out cost.  If  the  finishing  can  be  completed  on  mature 
corn  grazing,  it  is  usually  an  improvement,  as  such  graz- 
ing may  frequently  be  continued  after  other  grazing  has 
been  destroyed  with  frost. 

Where  the  farm  is  fenced,  the  finishing  of  sheep  thus 
in  a  moderate  way  by  farmers  whose  families  may  furnish 
the  requisite  labor  should  prove  profitable.  The  fenced 
farm,  or  a  part  of  it,  makes  it  possible  to  keep  the  sheep 


IQ2  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

together  and  unherded  when  occasion  calls  for  it.  Graz- 
ing on  the  adjoining  unfenced  farms  is  usually  welcomed 
because  of  the  weeds  consumed.  If  rape  or  turnips  or 
both  have  been  sown  amid  the  grain,  the  pasture  is  so 
improved,  but  the  aim  should  be  to  consume  these  before 
hard  freezing.  The  value  of  these  foods  in  the  stubbles, 
which  is  quite  material  in  southern  Minnesota,  grows  less 
with  higher  latitude.  The  stocks  for  such  grazing  may 
usually  be  secured  from  the  ranges  west. 

In  some  seasons  it  happens  that  on  low  and  ill-drained 
prairie  lands,  the  grain  cannot  be  harvested  in  the  usual 
way.  The  saturated  ground  will  not  sufficiently  sustain 
the  reaper  that  would  harvest  the  crop.  In  a  few  days  the 
grain  has  so  fallen  down  that  it  cannot  be  reaped  when 
the  ground  has  again  become  firm.  In  such  instances 
sheep  have  been  successfully  used  to  harvest  the  crop. 

Finishing  sheep  on  rape — No  pasture  plant  that  has 
yet  been  introduced  has  been  found  equal  to  rape  for  fat- 
tening sheep  quickly  and  satisfactorily.  The  dwarf  Essex 
is  the  variety  most  commonly  grown.  The  service  which 
this  small  plant  has  rendered  to  sheep  husbandry  in 
America  during  recent  years  has  been  very  great,  and  the 
service  that  it  may  yet  render  it  would  not  be  easy  to 
overestimate.  Those  who  may  desire  information  with 
reference  to  the  growing  of  this  plant  are  referred  to  the 
book,  "Cultivated  Crops,"  by  the  author. 

The  ideal  conditions  for  fattening  sheep  on  rape  call 
for  the  following:  (i)  That  the  rape  shall  be  well  on 
toward  maturity  before  it  is  reaped ;  (2)  that  a  grass  pas- 
ture shall  be  available  to  which  the  sheep  may  have  free 
access  while  they  are  feeding  on  the  rape ;  and  (3)  that  the 
climate  is  such  that  the  winter  does  not  close  in  suddenly. 

When  the  rape  is  possessed  of  much  stalk  in  propor- 
tion to  the  leaf  growth,  it  is  not  so  laxative  as  the  more 
tender  early  leaf  growth,  and  it  furnishes  more  food  to 
the  acre.  Moreover,  the  sheep  will  eat  the  stems  down 
close  to  the  ground.  But  when  rape  is  sown  early,  and 


FATTENING   SHEEP   WHILE   GRAZING  193 

especially  in  climates  that  are  warm,  the  danger  is  some- 
times present  that  the  crop  may  be  covered  by  the  green 
aphis.  When  so  affected  its  feeding  value  is  greatly  re- 
duced or  even  destroyed  in  proportion  to  the  violence  of 
the  attacks  of  those  insects. 

The  benefit  arising  from  giving  sheep  grazed  on  rape 
access  also  to  a  grass  pasture  is  found  in  the  favorable  in- 
fluence that  the  less  succulent  grass  exercises  on  the 
digestion.  It  tends  to  prevent  and  also  to  correct  scours 
which  arise  from  feeding  on  rape,  especially  when  first 
introduced  to  such  grazing.  Pastures  with  much  dead 
grass  on  them  are  the  most  suitable.  Kentucky  blue  grass 
pastures  that  have  not  been  closely  grazed  during  the 
early  season  of  growth  have  been  found  to  answer  the 
purpose  well.  The  sheep  seem  instinctively  to  crave 
more  or  less  of  such  grazing  at  such  a  time.  Experiments 
conducted  by  the  author  showed  marked  benefit  from 
access  to  such  grazing. 

The  autumn  season  after  the  summer  heat  has  gone,  has 
been  found  the  most  favorable  for  finishing  sheep  on  such 
grazing.  The  more  prolonged  the  period  covered  by  the 
autumn,  therefore,  the  more  prolonged  is  the  period  for 
grazing.  Rape  sown  not  too  early  readily  retains  its  green- 
ness in  cool  autumn  weather,  even  after  it  has  ceased  to 
grow.  Where  the  autumns  are  short  and  where  winter 
comes  suddenly  danger  is  present  that  more  or  less  of 
the  crop  will  be  lost.  In  damp  climates  it  may  be  lost  by 
early  snowfall  which  remains  all  winter.  In  dry  climates 
it  may  be  lost  by  sudden  freezing  so  severe  as  to  wilt  the 
crop. 

Some  caution  should  be  used  when  introducing  sheep  to 
a  rape  pasture,  or  much  loss  may  result.  They  are  usually 
much  prone  to  feed  on  rape  so  ravenously  as  to  induce  bloat- 
ing. This,  when  unrelieved,  may  produce  death  in  a  very 
short  time.  The  danger  increases  with  greater  succulence  in 
the  rape  and  with  increase  in  moisture  on  the  plants.  Two 
methods  have  been  adopted  of  meeting  the  danger.  By  the 


194  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

first  the  sheep  are  introduced  to  the  rape  gradually — that  is, 
by  allowing  them  to  graze  but  a  short  time  the  first  day,  and 
increasing  the  time  from  day  to  day  until  they  are  allowed 
to  remain  all  the  time  on  the  rape.  Before  turning  them  on 
to  the  grazing  each  day  they  are  fed  liberally  dry  hay  or 
grain,  or  are  allowed  to  satisfy  the  appetite,  in  great  part  at 
least,  by  grazing  on  a  grass  pasture.  From  half  a  week  to  a 
week  is  usually  occupied  in  thus  preparing  them  for  perma- 
nent grazing  on  the  rape. 

By  the  second  method  they  are  allowed  to  take  all  the 
safe  food  that  they  can  consume  of  some  material  that  they 
relish,  as  good  grass,  and  thenceforth  they  are  put  upon  the 
rape  and  not  removed  from  it  unless  in  case  of  severe  storm. 
This  method  is  much  simpler  than  the  other,  and  it  is  not 
usually  attended  with  much  hazard  when  the  sheep  have 
access  to  an  old  grass  pasture.  In  no  instances  should  sheep 
be  turned  in  to  graze  on  rape  when  they  are  hungry.  Close 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  sheep  while  being  grazed  on 
rape,  as  the  assurance  is  never  present  that  there  will  be  no 
loss  from  bloating.  It  would  seem  quite  safe  to  say  that  such 
losses  decrease:  (i)  With  increase  in  the  maturity  of  the 
rape;  (2)  with  decrease  in  its  succulence  from  any  cause  or 
causes ;  and  (3)  with  increase  in  the  other  food  given  along 
with  the  rape,  especially  in  the  dry  form.  Increase  in  the 
maturity  of  the  rape  or  decrease  of  moisture  in  the  climate 
lessens  succulence  in  the  rape,  and  as  a  result  makes  it  a  safer 
food.  In  the  author's  experience  rape  grown  in  Ontario, 
Canada,  caused  bloat  with  much  more  frequency  than  rape 
grown  west  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  But  nowhere  is  the 
liability  to  bloat  so  little  present  as  to  justify  grazing  very 
valuable  sheep  upon  it  without  exercising  all  due  caution  to 
make  it  impossible  for  bloating  to  arise.  This  may  be  done 
by  turning  them  on  to  the  rape  only  after  having  eaten  freely 
of  other  food.  Another  safe  way  is  to  cut  the  rape  and  feed 
it  more  or  less  wilted,  according  to  the  amount  fed.  When 
rape  is  grown  amid  the  grain  stubbles  the  liability  to  bloating 
is  reduced,  because  of  the  presence  of  other  food.  It  is  also 


FATTENING  SHEEP   WHILE  GRAZING  195 

possible  to  reduce  the  hazard  from  bloating  so  as  to  almost 
entirely  eliminate  it  by  the  judicious  feeding  of  grain,  espe- 
cially in  the  early  morning,  but  grain  is  a  more  expensive 
food  than  rape.  It  should  be  the  aim  to  visit  the  flock  at 
least  twice  a  day,  and  more  frequently  at  first.  Should  any 
be  found  suffering  from  bloat,  it  may  be  possible  to  relieve 
them.  Should  any  be  found  not  long  dead  from  this  cause, 
if  the  throat  is  cut  open  with  promptness,  the  meat  is  still 
good  for  food,  notwithstanding  the  prejudice  that  some  may 
have  in  regard  to  eating  it.  In  any  event  the  hide  and  wool 
thereon  will  far  more  than  pay  for  its  removal. 

When  sheep  are  first  put  upon  rape,  in  some  instances 
many  of  them  scour,  especially  in  the  absence  of  access  to 
old  grass  pastures  and  in  the  absence  of  a  grain  supplement. 
The  animals  affected  may  be  known  readily  by  the  soiling 
which  this  condition  induces.  They  should  be  tagged  with 
promptness,  and  if  subsequently  the  scouring  continues,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  remove  them  and  put  them  on  a  dry 
ration  for  a  time.  Sheep  have  a  great  craving  for  salt  when 
on  such  grazing,  and  it  should  be  so  abundantly  supplied  to 
them  that  they  will  at  all  times  have  access  to  it.  When  given 
in  covered  troughs  the  rain  cannot  dissolve  it  as  when  ex- 
posed. It  is  believed  that  the  salt  tends  to  correct  the  scour- 
ing, and  the  belief  would  seem  well  founded.  Sheep  will 
seldom  take  additional  water  when  they  are  feeding  on  rape. 

In  some  areas  prolonged  storms  occur  during  the  rape- 
grazing  season.  When  these  do  occur  the  sheep  should  not 
be  allowed  to  remain  long  exposed  to  them.  The  rape  plants 
are  so  tall  that  sheep  and  lambs  grazing  among  them  at  such 
a  time  get  much  bedrabbled,  and  as  such  rains  are  usually 
cold,  such  a  condition  is  decidedly  harmful.  To  remove  the 
sheep  at  such  a  time  may  call  for  the  aid  of  a  saddle  horse. 
When  visiting  the  flock  at  any  time,  a  saddle  horse  will  make 
it  possible  to  greatly  expedite  the  work. 

When  white  frosts  come  and  cover  the  leaves,  they  bring 
with  them  additional  hazard.  When  such  food  is  taken  into 
the  stomach  in  very  large  quantities,  the  irritation  following 


196  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

may  soon  result  in  the  death  of  the  animal.  These  results 
may  be  prevented  by  confining  the  sheep  to  the  grass  pas- 
tures until  the  sun  has  removed  the  rime.  Where  this  can- 
not be  done,  a  feed  of  grain  given  in  the  very  early  morning 
before  grazing  begins  will  usually,  if  not  indeed  in  all  in- 
stances, prove  a  measure  of  safety.  In  some  areas  the  early 
snow  falls  upon  the  rape  and  in  a  day  or  two  vanishes.  This 
does  not  lessen  the  value  of  the  rape  for  grazing  unless 
severe  frost  accompanies  or  precedes  the  snowfall.  When 
frost  occurs  severe  enough  at  any  time  to  cause  the  rape  to 
wilt,  its  feeding  properties  are  much  injured.  When  the 
wilting  is  marked  in  the  stems,  the  attempt  to  fatten  sheep 
upon  it  further  should  be  abandoned,  nor  should  it  form  any 
large  proportion  of  the  food  of  other  sheep. 

The  sustaining  and  fattening  power  of  well-grown  rape 
is  very  great.  The  Wisconsin  station  grew  36  tons  per  acre, 
and  the  Ontario  station  27  tons.  Doubtless  even  the  amount 
first  named  could  be  exceeded.  Twelve  tons  per  acre  is  a 
very  moderate  crop.  On  well-grown  rape  15  well-grown 
lambs  may  be  grazed  for  about  60  days  on  an  acre,  and  if  the 
lambs  are  of  good  quality  they  should  increase  at  the  rate 
of  10  to  12  pounds  per  month.  Common  lambs  should  in- 
crease on  rape  alone  from  eight  to  10  pounds  per  month.  In 
one  instance  the  author  obtained  an  increase  of  14.3  pounds 
per  month  from  rape  only  and  a  gain  at  the  rate  of  762 
pounds  per  acre.  From  common  sheep  or  lambs  an  increase 
of  300  to  400  pounds  should  be  forthcoming  from  an  aver- 
age .acre  of  good  rape.  The  author  obtained  an  increase  of 
179  pounds  per  acre  from  rape  sown  at  the  Ontario  station, 
August  12,  after  a  crop  of  winter  wheat  had  been  harvested. 
From  what  has  been  said  the  relative  cheapness  and  profit- 
ableness of  rape  as  a  food  for  fattening  sheep  will  be  readily 
apparent,  and  all  the  more  so  when  it  is  called  to  mind  that 
rape  is  frequently  grown  as  a  catch  crop.  In  estimating  the 
profit,  the  enhanced  value  of  the  weight  of  carcass  when  the 
grazing  begins  should  be  considered. 

The  question  as  to  whether  sheep  should  be  given  grain 


FATTENING   SHEEP   WHILE   GRAZING  197 

or  not  while  they  are  being  grazed  on  rape  will  turn  upon 
facts  such  as  relate  to  the  abundance  of  the  rape,  the  cir- 
cumstances attending  the  grazing  and  the  cost  or  value  of  the 
grain.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  feeding  of  grain  will 
proportionately  extend  the  period  for  grazing  the  rape.  Nor 
can  there  be  any  doubt  that  the  feeding  of  grain  is  in  some 
measure  a  safeguard:  (i)  When  the  rape  is  immature  or 
unusually  succulent ;  (2)  when  it  is  grazed  in  the  absence  of 
a  grass  pasture;  and  (3)  when  the  rape  is  more  or  less 
frozen  or  even  covered  with  rime.  It  would  seem  safe  to 
say  that  when  the  sheep  have  no  other  grazing  than  rape, 
the  value  of  the  grain  fed  will  more  than  be  recovered  in  the 
returns  from  the  sheep.  This,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be 
true  when  the  sheep  have  access  at  the  same  time  to  an  old 
blue  grass  pasture.  In  the  experience  of  Prof  John  A.  Craig, 
and  also  of  the  author,  the  increase  made  from  feeding  a 
supplement  of  grain  to  sheep  that  were  being  grazed  on  rape 
only  was  less  than  that  resulting  from  rape  and  blue  grass 
pastures,  and  the  latter  furnishes  a  relatively  cheaper  food 
than  the  former. 

Finishing  sheep  on  corn — The  finishing  of  sheep  on 
corn  by  allowing  the  sheep  to  harvest  the  corn  is  grow- 
ing in  favor  in  certain  areas.  The  high  cost  of  labor  gives 
encouragement  to  the  practice.  It  is  most  in  favor  in 
those  areas  in  which  corn  of  the  small  and  quick-growing 
varieties  has  the  best  chance  to  mature,  but  to  some  ex- 
tent it  is  practiced  in  areas  where  large  and  later  varieties 
may  mature.  This  method  of  putting  land  in  condition  to 
grow  good  crops  of  wheat  and  other  grain  has  met  with 
much  favor  in  certain  parts  of  North  Dakota. 

Any  variety  of  corn  that  will  mature  with  reasonable 
certainty  in  the  climate  where  grown  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose, but  those  varieties  that  bear  much  ear  relatively  to 
the  stalk  are  the  most  suitable.  Some  of  the  squaw  corns 
have  been  found  very  suitable.  The  great  hardihood  of 
these  corns  makes  it  safe  to  plant  them  earlier  than  it 
would  be  safe  to  plant  other  varieties.  In  some  instances 


198  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

sweet  corn  is  grown  which  matures  within  a  short  period. 
Sweet  corn  would  seem  eminently  adapted  to  such  graz- 
ing in  areas  where  reasonably  large  varieties  of  sweet 
corn  can  be  grown,  as  sheep  will  consume  much  of  the 
fodder  in  addition  to  the  grain  when  harvesting  sweet 
corn. 

Such  grazing  should  be  begun  in  a  cautious  way,  or 
disaster  may  come  to  the  flock  through  disturbed  diges- 
tion. This,  however,  is  not  necessarily  accompanied  by 
bloating,  as  in  the  case  of  rape.  The  increase  that  may 
be  made  in  the  duration  of  the  successive  periods  of  graz- 
ing may  be  determined  by  watching  the  droppings  closely. 
Excessive  consumption  of  the  fresh  corn  tends  to  induce 
scouring.  The  benefit  from  having  a  reserve  grass  pas- 
ture on  hand  at  such  a  time,  as  in  the  case  of  rape,  will  be 
at  once  apparent.  The  sheep  may  then  be  allowed  to  go 
on  the  corn  when  they  are  not  hungry,  until  they  get 
accustomed  to  it. 

In  grain-growing  areas  where  grass  pastures  have 
not  been  provided  sheep  are  brought  in  from  the  West 
and  begin  grazing  amid  the  stubbles,  and  from  these  they 
are  gradually  transferred  to  the  corn  grazing.  In  some 
instances  rape  is  grown  amid  the  stubbles  and  also  in  the 
corn.  In  either  case  it  will  be  found  helpful,  but  when 
sheep  have  become  so  accustomed  to  corn  that  they  are, 
grazed  on  it  alone,  it  makes  a  cheap  and  reasonably  safe 
fattening  food  on  which  to  finish  them.  Should  the  win- 
ter close  in  early,  the  grazing  may  continue,  but  in  such 
instances  it  is  specially  important  that  the  corn  shall  be 
well  matured  so  that  the  frost  may  not  increase  its  flinti- 
ness.  It  will  be  found  helpful  also  at  such  a  time  to  be 
able  to  feed  corn  from  the  bundle,  or  it  may  be  clover  or 
alfalfa,  to  supplement  the  food  thus  gathered  during  the 
day.  At  no  time  should  sheep  that  are  being  thus  fat- 
tened be  made  to  glean  too  closely,  or  the  loss  may  be 
more  than  the  gain.  Other  sheep  will  do  such  gleaning 
more  satisfactorily. 


FATTENING   SHEEP   WHILE   GRAZING  199 

The  highest  adaptation  to  this  method  of  fattening 
sheep  is  found  in  areas  where  the  normal  weather  condi- 
tions of  the  autumn  are  dry  rather  than  moist,  and  where 
the  advent  of  winter  does  not  come  with  such  suddenness. 
These  conditions  are  usually  found  in  areas  within  or  bor- 
dering on  the  semi-arid  belt.  But  even  in  areas  with 
more  rainfall  sheep  may  also  be  finished  thus  with  ad- 
vantage and  profit.  Especially  is  this  true  of  sweet  corn 
that  may  be  too  smutty  for  canning.  Store  sheep  will 
also  make  a  reasonably  good  use  of  frosted  corn  in  the 
fields  when  they  are  judiciously  given  access  to  it. 

Finishing  sheep  on  peas — During  recent  years  the 
finishing  of  sheep  on  peas  mainly  has  grown  into  an  ex- 
tensive industry  in  the  San  Luis  Valley,  Col.  The  eleva- 
tion is  about  7000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  summer 
climate  is  cool,  light  frosts  being  present  almost  every 
month  in  the  year.  The  crop  is  grown  in  part  by  subter- 
ranean irrigation  natural  to  much  of  the  valley,  but  some- 
times it  is  grown  by  irrigation  applied  in  the  usual  way. 
Among  the  principal  varieties  grown  are  the  Mexican  and 
the  small  green  and  white  varieties  of  the  Canada  field 
pea. 

From  40  to  50  pounds  are  sown  per  acre  with  the 
ordinary  seed  drill,  and  enough  oats  are  sown  along  with 
them  to  sustain  the  peas,  which  tends  to  lessen  the  waste 
while  the  peas  are  being  harvested.  When  the  peas  are 
ripe,  sheep  and  lambs  are  turned  in  to  graze  upon  them. 
In  some  instances  the  flock  is  given  a  wide  range,  but 
where  it  can  be  done  the  method  that  grazes  off"  the  field 
in  successive  divisions  is  preferred.  Other  sheep  are 
sometimes  made  to  follow  those  that  are  being  fattened, 
as  they  are,  of  course,  much  better  adapted  to  such  glean- 
ing. An  acre  of  good  peas  should  fatten,  it  is  said,  from 
10  to  15  lambs,  and  that  the  lambs  should  gain  about  10 
pounds  per  month.  This  would  make  the  feeding  value 
of  such  peas  about  equal  to  that  of  a  good  crop  of  well- 
grown  rape.  The  peas,  however,  would  have  the  ad- 


2OO  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

vantage  over  both  rape  and  corn  in  the  nitrogen  brought 
to  the  land  while  they  were  growing. 

The  possibility  of  extending  such  grazing  so  as  to 
include  wide  areas  of  the  mountain  country  would  seem 
to  be  of  easy  realization.  The  more  important  of  the 
essentials  are:  (i)  A  soil  with  the  requisite  food  elements 
to  grow  the  grain ;  (2)  a  climate  suitable  to  the  growing 
of  the  crop,  and  what  is  even  more  important,  to  the 
harvesting  of  the  same  by  sheep ;  (3)  stock  sheep  not  too 
distant  that  may  be  secured  for  finishing.  These  condi- 
tions are  present,  it  is  claimed,  in  considerable  areas  of 
several  mountain  states,  including  New  Mexico,  Wyo- 
ming, Utah,  Nevada,  California,  Oregon,  Washington, 
Idaho  and  Montana.  Some  of  those  valleys  are  already 
proverbial  for  the  excellent  crops  of  peas  which  they 
grow.  By  no  other  method  can  fertility  be  brought  more 
cheaply  to  these  lands  than  by  grazing  down  on  them 
some  kind  of  legume. 

Finishing  sheep  on  field  roots — The  author  has  not 
met  with  any  instances  in  which  sheep  have  been  finished 
in  the  country  on  field  roots  where  the  latter  were  har- 
vested by  the  sheep.  Such  a  method  of  finishing  them, 
however,  should  be  quite  feasible  in  certain  parts  of  the 
United  States,  as  it  is  in  certain  parts  of  Britain.  Sheep 
have  long  been  fattened  thus  in  Britain,  with  a  small  sup- 
plement of  grain  added.  Such  winter  fattening,  as  it  may 
be  termed,  would  only  be  feasible  where  the  frost  did  not 
hinder  feeding  on  the  turnips.  There  should  be  areas 
where  this  ought  to  be  practicable  in  the  Gulf  States,  in 
some  of  the  western  mountain  valleys  and  in  portions  of 
some  of  the  Pacific  States.  It  would,  of  course,  be  possi- 
ble to  cover  over  rows  of  roots  for  temporary  use  by 
strewing  earth  over  them  with  a  plow,  enough  being 
plowed  out  each  day  for  present  use. 

Wherever  winter  crops  of  cabbages  can  be  grown  for 
the  northern  markets,  crops  of  roots  may  also  be  grown 
and  grazed  off  where  they  grow.  The  question,  there- 


FATTENING   SHEEP   WHILE   GRAZING  2OI 

fore,  resolves  itself  into  one  of  the  greatest  relative  profit. 
Such  grazing  could  be  used  in  fattening,  a  grain  supple- 
ment being  added,  or  it  could  be  used  to  furnish  grazing 
for  ewes  nursing  milk  lambs.  Corn  would  furnish  a  good 
supplemental  grain  food. 

The  grazing  of  roots  upon  grain  fields  has  already 
been  touched  upon  (see  page  191).  Of  course,  it  would 
be  quite  practicable  to  harvest  entire  crops  of  roots  by 
such  a  system,  but  the  land  that  will  grow  the  roots  will 
also  grow  rape,  and  the  latter  may  be  grown  with  much 
less  outlay  for  labor  than  the  former. 

Finishing  sheep  on  other  crops — It  would  seem  quite 
practicable  to  finish  sheep  on  some  other  crops  not  enu- 
merated above,  or  if  it  were  not  desired  to  finish  the  sheep 
they  could  be  made  to  feed  on  these  crops  and  thereby 
contribute  greatly  to  the  fertilization  of  the  land.  Prom- 
inent among  these  crops  are  cowpeas,  soy  beans  and 
pumpkins  and  squashes. 

Cowpeas  may  be  grown  over  wide  areas  in  the  South 
after  other  early  maturing  crops  have  been  reaped.  The 
value  of  the  grazing  will  increase  with  the  volume  of  the 
crop  and,  up  to  a  certain  limit,  with  the  advanced  stage  of 
growth.  Supplementary  grain  should  be  supplied  when 
necessary  for  fattening,  and  corn  is  very  suitable  for  such 
a  use.  Soy  beans  would  seem  to  answer  the  purpose  bet- 
ter than  cowpeas,  as  they  produce  more  grain  to  the  straw 
than  cowpeas.  They  are  also  of  upright  growth,  and  the 
pods  are  near  to  one  another,  hence  they  are  of  easy  access 
to  the  sheep.  Sheep  should  fatten  quickly  on  such  graz- 
ing, but  experience  on  the  question  has  up  to  the  present 
been  practically  unattainable.  Those  who  have  fed 
pumpkins  to  .sheep  are  loud  in  their  praises.  They  claim 
that  when  used  to  pumpkins,  no  limit  may  be  set  to  the 
quantities  fed,  as  long  as  they  are  consumed  so  as  to  avoid 
waste.  They  are  specially  helpful  to  sheep  and  lambs 
that  are  being  pushed  forward  on  corn.  They  are  more 
commonly  strewn  over  grass  pastures  when  fed.  At  the 


2O2  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

first  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  them  open  and  to  sprinkle 
them  with  salt,  but  soon  the  sheep  become  fond  of  them. 
Squashes  of  the  soft-shelled  varieties  only  are  adapted 
to  such  feeding.  Whether  pumpkin  seeds  thus  consumed 
by  lambs  tend  to  protect  them  from  intestinal  parasites 
of  certain  kinds  has  not  been  made  quite  clear. 


CHAPTER  XI 
FATTENING  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS  IN  WINTER 

In  Chapter  XI  the  following  phases  of  fattening 
sheep  and  lambs  are  discussed:  (i)  The  sources  from 
which  they  may  be  obtained ;  (2)  Selecting  sheep  for  fat- 
tening; (3)  Quarters  suitable  for  feeding;  (4)  Leading 
sheep  up  to  full  feeding;  (5)  The  fodders  that  are  suit- 
able; (6)  The  succulence  that  is  suitable;  (7)  The  con- 
centrates that  are  suitable;  (8)  Self-feeders  and  their 
place;  (9)  Fattening  sheep  on  sugar  beet  pulp;  (10) 
Feeding  sheep  on  western  ranges;  (n)  Fattening  sheep 
on  screenings;  (12)  Fattening  two  lots  in  succession; 
(13)  The  hazard  to  breeding  flocks  from  fattening  sheep 
brought  in  from  outside  sources ;  (14)  All  sheep  should  be 
fattened  on  the  farm;  (15)  The  duration  of  the  fattening 
period ;  (16)  The  increase  from  sheep  while  fattening,  and 
(17)  The  profit  from  fattening  sheep  in  winter. 

Sources  from  which  obtained — Lambs  for  fattening 
may  be  grown  on  the  farm  or  purchased  from  other  farms 
or  from  the  ranges.  Sheep  for  fattening  are  usually  ob- 
tained from  range  sources,  but  in  some  instances  they 
also  may  come  from  the  farm,  as  when  disposing  of  aged 
ewes.  These,  however,  are  more  commonly  fattened  on 
autumn  pastures. 

The  aim  should  be  to  fatten  lambs  on  the  farm  on 
which  they  are  grown  and  for  the  following  reasons:  (i) 
When  thus  fattened  all  the  profit  resulting  from  the 
transaction  comes  to  the  grower  of  the  lambs ;  (2)  when 
thus  fattened  the  profit  should  be  more  than  when  the 
lambs  are  fattened  elsewhere ;  (3)  the  hazard  of  bringing 
in  disease  is  lessened.  That  more  profit  should  accrue 
when  the  lambs  are  fattened  on  the  farm  on  which  they 
were  grown  is  self-evident,  as  no  expense  is  incurred  in 


2O4  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

purchasing,  such  as  must  be  incurred  when  the  lambs  are 
brought  in  from  an  outside  source.  Where  the  facilities 
for  fattening  are  present,  it  is  very  evident  that  if  it  pays 
a  purchaser  to  buy  the  lambs  and  take  them  to  another 
farm  to  fatten  them,  it  should  pay  the  grower  better  to 
fatten  them  at  home. 

When  the  market  is  near,  selling  lambs  to  be  fat- 
tened on  other  farms  finds  little  justification.  It  may  be 
different  when  the  lambs  must  be  shipped.  It  may  prove 
unduly  expensive  to  ship  them  in  any  other  way  than  in 
carload  lots.  To  accomplish  this  it  may  be  necessary  to 
add  to  the  lambs  grown,  by  purchase,  or  to  sell  them  to 
another.  This  difficulty  could,  of  course,  be  met  by 
shipping  finished  lots  in  a  co-operative  way.  Of  course, 
it  is  better  to  sell  lambs  in  the  finished  than  in  the  un- 
finished form;  hence  the  farmer  who  purchases  lambs 
from  other  farmers  and  fattens  them  may  be  doing  a  good 
work.  Nevertheless  it  is  better  in  every  way,  when  it  can 
be  done,  to  fatten  the  lambs  on  farms  on  which  they  are 
grown.  Of  course,  there  are  farms  on  which  this  cannot 
be  done,  as,  for  instance,  where  so  large  a  proportion  of 
the  farm  is  too  rugged  to  grow  food  other  than  pasture. 
If  fattened  at  all,  the  lambs  growing  on  these  farms  must 
be  fattened  elsewhere. 

The  most  important  source  by  far  at  the  present  time 
from  which  sheep  and  lambs  can  be  obtained  in  the 
United  States  are  the  ranges  of  the  West.  Those  grown 
on  the  open  range  cannot  be  finished  there.  If  fattened, 
it  must  be  in  the  mountain  valleys  where  food  is  grown 
with  the  aid  of  irrigation,  or  on  arable  farms  that  lie  east- 
ward from  the  ranges.  The  number  fattened  in  the  moun- 
tain valleys  as  yet  is  relatively  small,  nor  is  it  probable 
that  those  valleys  will  be  able  in  the  future  to  furnish 
food  enough  to  fatten  all  the  lambs  grown  on  the  ranges 
adjacent  to  them.  The  surplus  must  needs  be  fattened  on 
the  arable  farm. 

For  such  fattening  they  may  be  obtained  by  purchase 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS  IN    WINTER 

directly  from  the  range  or  at  the  stock  yards  to  which 
they  are  shipped,  chiefly  in  the  autumn  season.  When  the 
number  wanted  for  feeding  is  large,  it  may  be  more  profit- 
able to  purchase  on  the  range,  but  where  only  a  small 
number  is  wanted  they  may  be  obtained  most  conveni- 
ently from  the  stock  yards.  Here  also  co-operation  may 
be  resorted  to  when  necessary,  but  in  nearly  all  instances 
those  farmers  who  purchase  lambs  for  fattening  aim  to 
feed  not  less  than  a  carload  lot,  even  though  a  part  or  all 
of  the  food  must  needs  be  purchased. 

Selecting  sheep  for  fattening — In  the  selection  of 
sheep  for  fattening,  form  and  size  are  much  more  im- 
portant than  breed  or  grade.  It  would  not  be  correct  to 
say  that  breed  is  of  no  account,  for  all  breeds  are  not 
equally  popular  on  the  block.  All  things  considered,  the 
most  popular  sheep  with  the  butcher  are  those  of  the 
middle  wool  breeds,  and  especially  the  smaller  of  these, 
as  the  Southdown  and  Shropshire.  But  sheep  of  any 
breed  or  grade  with  the  required  form  will  take  the  mar- 
ket readily  when  well  finished  and  of  suitable  size  and 
weight. 

With  reference  to  form,  whether  lambs  or  mature 
sheep  are  fed,  the  aim  should  be  to  select  them  as  far  as 
possible  of  the  smooth,  compact  and  short-limbed  types 
for  the  breed  or  grade  which  they  represent.  The  pref- 
erence should  be  for  animals  with  firm,  strong  and 
straight  backs,  round  bodies  denoting  good  spring  of  rib, 
and  much  width  through  the  shoulders  and  thighs.  They 
should  have  rosy  or  pink  skins,  indicating  a  healthy  con- 
dition of  the  system. 

As  to  the  size,  the  aim  should  be  to  have  them  con- 
form as  nearly  as  may  be  practicable  to  the  needs  of  the 
market.  The  market  demand  may  differ  in  different 
localities,  but  the  smooth,  neat  carcass,  with  bone  not 
more  than  medium,  is  always  preferred  to  the  carcass 
rough,  or  of  the  lanky  order.  Lambs  that  weigh  not 
more  than  60  to  70  pounds  when  put  on  feed  are  to  be 


2O6  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

preferred  to  those  that  are  older,  as  they  will  then  take 
the  market  at  weights  under  rather  than  over  100  pounds. 
Weights  even  lighter  than  those  named  are  preferred  to 
those  that  are  heavier.  Sheep  of  the  medium  and  smooth 
types  are  also  preferred  for  fattening  to  those  that  are 
larger.  Heavy-weight  lambs  and  wethers,  such  as  were 
much  sought  for  years  ago,  are  no  longer  in  highest  favor 
with  dealers  or  consumers. 

The  favorite  age  at  which  to  turn  off  feeding  lambs 
is  not  a  matter  of  so  much  importance  as  the  weight 
which  the  lambs  reach  when  marketed.  It  is  necessary 
to  sell  lambs  of  the  large  breeds  at  an  early  age,  lest  they 
become  too  heavy  for  the  market  demands.  The  weight 
attained  by  mature  sheep  will  vary,  of  course,  with  the 
breed.  The  plan  of  fattening  wethers  at  an  age  under  one 
year  is  continually  growing  in  favor.  The  maintenance 
of  wethers  for  a  longer  period  is  now  mainly  confined  to 
the  western  ranges,  and  even  on  these  it  is  growing  less 
in  favor,  as  the  maintenance  of  breeding  ewes  is  thought 
to  be  more  profitable. 

The  age  at  which  lambs  shall  be  marketed  is  of  much 
less  consequence  than  the  weight  which  they  possess. 
The  aim  should  be  to  have  them  reach  the  market  as  near 
as  may  be  possible  to  the  favorite  weights.  To  accom- 
plish this  it  will  be  necessary  to  sell  lambs  of  the  large 
breeds  at  an  earlier  age  than  those  of  the  smaller  breeds. 
Shearlings  make  gains  more  quickly  than  sheep  that  are 
older,  and  they  call  for  a  somewhat  more  nitrogenous  diet 
to  aid  in  advancing  development,  though  not  so  much  so 
as  in  the  case  with  lambs.  The  older  the  sheep,  the  more 
the  food  that  is  called  for  to  make  increase,  and  the  more 
carbonaceous  may  the  ration  be.  The  older  that  breed- 
ing ewes  are,  the  more  expensive  is  it  relatively  to  fatten 
them  and  the  less  the  price  that  is  paid  for  them  in  the 
market. 

The  condition  of  the  sheep  and  lambs  at  the  time  of 
purchase  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  resultant  profit, 


FATTENING   SHEEP  AND  LAMBS  IN    WINTER  2O/ 

if  any,  from  feeding  them.  When  purchased  by  weight, 
the  less  of  fat  which  they  carry  in  proportion  to  the  entire 
weight  the  less  opportunity  is  there  for  making  increase, 
but  the  lack  of  flesh  should  not  be  such  as  is  associated 
with  a  condition  of  positive  lack  of  thrift.  In  other  words, 
when  purchasing  such  animals,  capacity  to  make  increase 
is  more  important  than  increase  already  made.  But  lean- 
ness must  not  be  present  to  the  extent  of  calling  for  a 
period  too  long  relatively  to  bring  the  system  into  a  con- 
dition that  capacitates  it  for  making  rapid  increase. 
Should  the  animals  be  purchased  by  the  head,  then,  of 
course,  the  more  fat  that  they  carry  at  the  time  of  pur- 
chase the  less  the  quantity  to  be  added  thereto,  and  the 
less  the  expense  in  completing  the  fattening. 

Quarters  suitable  for  feeding — The  quarters  suitable 
for  feeding  sheep  are  much  dependent  on  the  climate.  The 
kind  and  character  of  the  precipitation  exercise  a  more 
potent  influence  on  the  quarters  that  should  be  provided 
than  the  degree  of  the  precipitation.  In  some  climates 
shelter  is  not  really  called  for  other  than  protection  from 
winds.  In  others  it  should  be  so  accessible  that  the  sheep 
could  be  put  under  cover  on  very  short  notice.  The  quar- 
ters provided  for  sheep  should  always  protect  from  falling 
storms  that  are  hurtful,  strong  winds  and  also  from 
drafts,  and  they  should  furnish  a  bed  free  from  damp- 
ness. 

In  northern  areas  it  is  usually  if  not  in  all  instances 
necessary  to  have  a  shed  or  stable  in  which  the  sheep  may 
be  protected  from  adverse  precipitation  and  a  yard  at- 
tached to  which  they  have  the  freest  access,  save  in  time 
of  storms.  Under  such  conditions  reasonably  warm 
quarters  are  not  detrimental  when  the  doors  are  kept 
open  giving  access  to  the  yards.  Dry,  well-lighted  and 
airy  basements  are  not  objectionable  where  those  condi- 
tions are  observed,  but  it  would  be  disastrous  to  a  flock 
to  confine  them  in  quarters  overwarm.  If  fattened  in  a 
shed  it  should  be  possible  to  close  it  against  storms  that 


208  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

drift  and  swirl.  The  yard  should  be  on  the  sunny  side 
and  should  have  the  protection  of  a  high  board  fence  or  of 
stacks  of  straw  on  the  exposed  side,  or  sides.  Of  course, 
convenience  in  feeding  and  providing  water  should  be 
given  careful  attention.  When  sheep  thus  fed  are  shorn, 
the  quarters  in  which  they  are  kept  must  be  warm  enough 
to  meet  their  needs. 

In  areas  reasonably  mild  and  dry,  the  protection  of 
a  shed  even  may  not  be  necessary.  But  the  cover  of  a 
grove  or  the  protection  of  a  bluff  is  always  advantageous 
in  shielding  the  sheep  on  feed  from  the  wind.  In  many 
of  the  western  mountain  valleys  sheep  are  thus  fattened, 
and  even  as  far  north  as  Montana.  In  some  instances  no 
other  protection  is  afforded  than  that  of  a  fence  surround- 
ing the  inclosure.  The  temperature  is  seldom  too  low 
for  the  wellbeing  of  sheep  on  such  food,  the  days  of  sun- 
shine are  almost  continuous  and  the  storms  accompanied 
by  precipitation  are  light.  Even  as  far  north  as  Minne- 
sota sheep  have  been  fattened  with  reasonable  success 
with  no  other  shelter  than  that  of  a  bluff  and  a  grove  such 
as  grows  in  the  ravines  of  the  prairie. 

In  areas  mild  and  moist  the  protection  of  a  shed  or 
covering  of  some  kind  is,  in  a  sense,  necessary  to  shield 
the  sheep  from  rain  and  from  snow  or  sleet  should  these 
occur.  In  some  instances  sheds  devoted  to  other  uses 
during. a  part  of  the  year  may  be  used  for  feeding  sheep 
in  winter.  Sheds,  for  instance,  in  which  tobacco  is  cured, 
are  sometimes  thus  used  for  protecting  sheep  that  are  be- 
ing fattened  at  that  season. 

Leading  sheep  up  to  full  feeding — When  sheep  are 
first  put  upon  a  fattening  ration,  much  caution  should  be 
exercised  with  reference  to  the  amount  of  grain  fed  and 
the  rate  of  increase  in  the  feeding  of  the  same.  If  the 
food  is  too  stimulating  in  character  or  excessive  in  quan- 
tity, derangement  in  the  digestion  will  result  that  will 
greatly  retard  increase,  if  it  does  not  lead  to  even  more 
serious  consequences.  Time  must  be  given  to  allow  the 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS   IN    WINTER  209 

digestive  organs  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the 
change  in  the  diet  when  unused  to  grain.  Such  accommoda- 
tion properly  attained  will  enable  sheep  to  digest  with 
safety  and  profit  after  a  time  several  times  as  much  grain 
as  it  would  be  safe  to  give  to  them  at  the  first.  Nor  can 
the  system  appropriate  to  itself  the  nutrients  furnished  in 
heavy  grain  feeding  with  as  much  advantage  when  feed- 
ing begins  as  at  a  later  period.  The  lower  the  condition 
of  the  animals,  when  feeding  begins,  the  less  power  have 
they  to  utilize  such  foods  to  the  best  advantage.  When 
the  animals,  whether  lambs  or  sheep,  are  capable  of  tak- 
ing maximum  amounts  of  grain,  they  are  said  to  be  on 
"full  feed." 

Ordinarily  the  grain  fed  until  the  sheep  are  on  full 
feed  should  be  nitrogenous  in  character,  but  decreasingly 
so  as  full  feeding  is  approached.  Much  depends,  how- 
ever, on  the  nature  of  the  fodder  fed.  When  the  rough- 
age fed  consists  largely  of  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  corn  and 
bran  without  other  admixture  may  be  fed  when  other 
grain  food  is  more  costly.  The  proportion  of  bran  at  the 
first  should  be  large,  but  not  so  large  as  to  hinder  the 
sheep  from  eating  it  with  a  relish,  and  it  should  decrease 
as  the  feeding  advances.  But  for  such  preliminary  feed- 
ing it  will  always  be  found  helpful  to  add  oats  to  the 
grain  fed,  at  least  for  a  time.  When  the  roughage  con- 
sists of  ordinary  hay,  there  is  no  better  or  safer  food  for 
preliminary  feeding  than  oats  and  bran  fed  in  equal  pro- 
portions by  bulk.  Other  kinds  of  grain  will  answer,  but 
none  is  quite  so  safe  or  so  satisfactory  in  every  way  as 
oats ;  hence  when  the  price  of  oats  is  such  as  to  preclude 
their  use  when  the  sheep  are  on  full  feed,  it  may,  never- 
theless, be  found  profitable  to  feed  them  to  some  extent 
when  the  fattening  process  begins.  When  bran  is  not 
obtainable,  if  five  to  10  per  cent  of  oilcake  be  added  to 
the  grain,  it  will  be  found  helpful.  Where  any  consider- 
able quantity  of  field  roots  is  fed,  it  may  not  be  neces- 
sary to  feed  either  bran  or  oilcake.  When  screenings  are 


2IO  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

the  sole  fattening  food,  the  only  caution  to  observe  is 
not  to  increase  too  rapidly  the  quantity  fed. 

The  amount  to  feed  at  the  first  will  depend  on  the 
character  of  the  food  previously  eaten.  When  sheep  or 
lambs  put  on  feed  have  never  tasted  grain  previously, 
which  is  sometimes  the  case  with  sheep  grown  on  western 
ranges,  the  quantity  of  grain  fed  at  the  first  should  be 
very  small,  less  probably  than  one-fourth  of  a  pound  per 
animal  daily.  If  previously  well  used  to  grain,  the  amount 
fed  may  be  larger,  and  it  may  be  increased  more  rapidly 
than  with  the  former.  With  lambs  that  have  been  re- 
ceiving a  somewhat  liberal  grain  ration  from  the  period 
of  weaning  on  to  the  fattening  season,  full  feeding  may  be 
attained  in  a  very  short  period;  in  fact,  it  may  also 
begin  with  the  beginning  of  the  fattening  season.  For 
the  amount  of  grain  that  constitutes  full  feeding,  see 
page  210. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  very  evident  that 
the  time  required  to  get  sheep  that  are  being  fattened  on 
full  feed  will  vary  greatly.  With  foods  rich  in  nitrogen 
a  less  period  is  required  than  with  foods  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates. The  less  concentrated  also  the  grain  fed,  the 
shorter  the  period  required  to  reach  full  feeding.  But 
the  less  that  the  sheep  have  been  used  to  grain  feeding, 
the  longer  the  time  called  for  to  reach  this  period.  It 
would  seem  correct  to  say  that  in  no  case  should  more 
than  four  weeks  be  necessary  for  such  feeding,  and  in 
but  few  instances  can  it  be  reached  in  one  week.  As  the 
period  advances  the  grain  fed  is  gradually  increased  from 
day  to  day  in  quantity,  and  sometimes  also  in  strength. 

When  the  grain  feeding  is  crowded  too  fast,  the  first 
indications  of  the  fact  in  the  conduct  of  the  sheep  will  be 
seen  in  the  loss  of  appetite.  The  moment  that  such  con- 
ditions manifest  themselves,  the  animals  thus  affected 
should  be  removed  from  the  others  and  put  on  reduced 
rations.  If  such  instances  are  at  all  numerous  the  quan- 
tity of  the  grain  fed  should  be  reduced  until  normal  con- 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND    LAMBS   IN    WINTER  211 

ditions  prevail  again.  When  a  sheep  is  thus  affected  to 
the  extent  of  refusing  food  altogether,  its  progress  in  fat- 
tening is  much  hindered,  as  considerable  time  must  elapse 
before  the  digestive  organs  recover  lost  vigor,  if,  indeed, 
they  ever  recover  it  fully. 

Fodders  that  are  suitable — The  range  of  the  fodders 
that  may  be  fed  to  sheep  that  are  being  fattened  is  wide. 
Of  the  legumes,  it  includes  clover  in  all  its  varieties> 
alfalfa,  cowpeas  and  vetches.  Among  the  non-leguminous 
fodders  it  includes  timothy  and  hay  made  from  various 
other  grasses,  corn  stover,  corn  fodder,  sorghum  and  the 
nonsaccharine  sorghums  and  straw  of  some  of  the  small 
cereals.  A  mixture  of  pea  and  oat  hay  or  of  vetch  and 
oat  hay  makes  an  excellent  change.  Millet  hay  given 
alone  or  with  oats  may  also  be  used. 

Beyond  question  the  legumes  furnish  the  most  val- 
uable fodders.  Relative  suitability  in  these  is  more  a 
matter  of  palatability  than  of  variety,  and  palatability  is 
more  dependent  on  fine  growth  and  careful  harvesting 
than  on  the  kind  of  the  legumes.  Timothy  and  other 
grasses  are  not  so  highly  relished  as  clovers,  but  if  cut 
sufficiently  early  they  will  answer  the  purpose  without 
admixture.  The  combination,  however,  with  clover, 
when  the  fodder  is  of  fine  growth,  furnishes  a  decided  im- 
provement. The  value  of  millet  hay  or  of  millet  and  oat 
hay  is  highest  when  harvested,  as  some  of  the  millet  heads 
assume  a  yellow  tint.  Corn  stover  furnishes  a  cheap  fod- 
der, but  is  more  suitable  when  shredded,  as  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  it  is  then  consumed.  Corn  fodder,  if  of  fine 
growth,  is  decidedly  superior  to  corn  stover,  and  when 
of  the  character  mentioned  it  is  not  necessary  to  shred  it. 
The  value  of  nonsaccharine  sorghums  for  such  feeding  is 
also  largely  dependent  upon  their  fineness.  Whether  it 
will  pay  to  shred  corn  or  the  sorghums  for  such  feeding 
is  still  an  unsettled  question.  The  higher  in  price  that  fod- 
ders are  the  greater  will  be  the  gain  from  shredding.  Corn 
fodder  has  the  advantage  usually  of  furnishing  more  or 


212  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

less  grain,  and  the  same  is  true  of  pea  and  oat  and  vetch 
and  oat  fodder  cut  at  a  proper  stage  of  growth.  Rye  straw 
is  very  low  in  value  for  such  feeding.  Wheat  straw  has 
more  value,  and  barley  and  oat  straw  have  a  value  still 
higher. 

Too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  the  qual- 
ity of  the  fodder.  When  it  has  been  grown  and  cured 
properly,  shredding  or  chaffing  are  seldom  either  neces- 
sary or  beneficial.  Some  waste  will  result  from  feeding 
coarse  clover  or  corn  stalks,  and  considerable  waste  will 
result  from  feeding  straw,  but  sheep  that  are  being  fat- 
tened should  not  be  forced  to  consume  such  food.  When 
fodders  are  scarce  and  high,  it  is,  of  course,  more  impor- 
tant that  they  shall  be  eaten  somewhat  closely. 

The  aim  should  be  to  feed  fodders  in  racks  as  a  rule. 
The  exceptions  are  corn  and  sorghum  fodders  under  some 
conditions  of  feeding.  It  is  allowable  sometimes  to  feed 
these  by  strewing  them  on  frozen  surfaces  when  the  con- 
ditions are  cleanly.  Usually  they  are  fed  twice  a  day, 
that  is,  evening  and  morning,  and  the  aim  should  be  to 
clean  out  the  residue,  if  any,  in  the  racks  before  each  feed 
is  given.  But  when  very  large  lots  are  fed,  it  may  be,  in 
a  sense,  necessary  to  keep  a  supply  of  fodder  where  it  will 
be  at  all  times  accessible  to  the  sheep,  notwithstanding 
the  considerable  waste  of  such  fodder,  which  thenceforth 
is  only  useful  for  bedding.  When  straw  of  the  small 
cereals  is  fed,  it  should  be  in  conjunction  with  other  and 
better  fodders.  When  corn  or  sorghum  fodders  are  on 
hand,  also  hay  from  the  grasses  or  clovers,  and  also  straw 
from  the  small  cereals,  the  foods  mentioned  first  may  be 
fed  with  most  profit  in  the  morning.  Those  mentioned 
second  in  the  evening,  and  those  mentioned  third  at  noon. 
The  most  palatable  fodder  is  thus  reserved  for  the  even- 
ing meal.  Corn  fodder  has  a  higher  feeding  value  in  the 
autumn  and  early  winter  than  later,  and  this  is  probably 
true  of  all  the  sorghum  fodders ;  hence  the  aim  should  be 
to  save  the  best  fodders  as  far  as  practicable  for  feeding 


FATTENING    SHEEP   AND   LAMBS  IN    WINTER  213 

during  the  advanced  stage  of  the  fattening  process.  Straw 
of  the  small  cereals  may  in  some  instances  furnish  one  of 
the  two  feeds  given,  but  not  for  long  periods  of  feeding. 
Some  breeds  of  sheep,  as  the  Merino,  for  instance,  will 
consume  such  straw  more  readily  than  others. 

The  amount  of  coarse  fodder  required  cannot  be 
given  with  accuracy,  as  it  will  vary  with  the  age  of  the 
sheep,  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  fodder  and  the  propor- 
tion of  the  concentrates  fed,  also  the  kind  of  the  same. 
If  the  fodders  are  such  that  sheep  will  eat  them  with  a 
relish  until  satisfied,  they  will  consume  about  as  much 
fodder  as  grain  (see  page  218).  But  usually  there  is  some 
waste  of  fodder ;  hence  a  greater  weight  of  fodder  is  required 
than  of  concentrates.  With  the  best  of  alfalfa  or  clover 
hay,  it  would  be  practicable  to  fatten  sheep,  when  the 
weight  of  the  hay  to  the  grain  is  as  two  to  one. 

Succulence  that  is  suitable — The  chief  sources  of 
succulence  in  providing  food  for  sheep  that  are  being  fat- 
tened in  winter  are  silage  and  field  roots.  Tubers  may  be 
used  to  some  extent,  but  usually  they  are  too  costly  for 
such  feeding.  Almost  any  kind  of  field  roots  will  answer 
the  purpose,  but  rutabagas  and  mangels  are  most  in  favor, 
largely  for  the  reason  that  they  are  most  cheaply  grown. 
Sugar  beets  are  sometimes  used,  but  these  are  more  com- 
monly fed  in  the  form  of  pulp.  Potatoes  may  be  fed,  but 
usually  they  are  too  valuable  for  such  feeding. 

The  value  of  silage  in  fattening  sheep  and  lambs  de- 
pends in  a  considerable  degree  upon  the  character  of  the 
silage  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  fed.  It  is 
claimed  that  lambs  especially  take  more  kindly  to  en- 
silage made  from  corn  harvested  at  a  somewhat  more 
advanced  stage  of  growth  than  is  usual  in  harvesting 
corn  intended  for  the  silo.  In  other  words,  they  prefer 
silage  not  over-succulent  and  probably  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  sweeter  than  other  silage.  In  extremely  cold  weather 
some  care  is  necessary  with  reference  to  the  quantity  fed, 
as  the  silage  will  freeze  in  a  very  short  time  in  such 


214  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

weather,  nor  does  it  seem  judicious  under  such  conditions 
to  encourage  animals  to  fill  the  stomach  with  such  food. 
Under  no  conditions  should  silage  be  fed  to  sheep  when 
it  is  moldy  or  tainted  with  decay.  Notwithstanding,  the 
high  value  of  silage  cannot  be  questioned,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  its  cheapness  as  a  fattening  food  for  sheep. 

Field  roots  are  not  much  used  in  the  United  States 
in  fattening  sheep,  for  the  reason  chiefly  that  they  are  not 
much  grown.  Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  cost  of 
production,  they  are  more  costly  to  provide  than  corn 
silage.  Notwithstanding,  when  field  roots  are  judi- 
ciously fed,  they  tend  to  tone  up  the  digestion,  and  thus  to 
influence  favorably  the  health  of  the  animals  that  are  be- 
ing fattened.  The  marked  suitability  of  field  roots  for 
fattening  sheep,  apart  from  the  question  of  cost,  is  indi- 
cated in  the  excellent  results  obtained  from  feeding  when 
sheep  are  given  large  quantities  of  sugar  beet  pulp;  as 
with  feeding  silage,  it  is  not  wise  to  feed  very  large 
quantities  of  field  roots  during  periods  of  prolonged  and 
extreme  cold. 

No  fixed  rule  is  followed  in  the  order  in  which  silage  and 
roots  are  fed,  or  in  the  number  of  feeds  given  daily.  In 
some  instances  these  are  fed  once,  in  others  twice.  Some- 
times they  are  fed  in  the  morning,  at  other  times  in  the 
evening,  and  less  frequently  at  noon.  When  large  quan- 
tities are  fed  they  are  commonly  fed  both  morning  and 
evening.  The  silage  is,  of  course,  ready  for  feeding  at  all 
times.  The  roots  should  be  prepared  by  slicing  them  or 
running  them  through  a  root  pulper. 

The  amounts  that  may  be  fed  or  that  should  be  fed,  will 
vary  with  the  cost  of  growing  or  securing  the  silage  or 
roots  and  with  the  nature  of  the  other  foods.  More  of 
both  may  be  fed  along  with  a  heavy  grain  ration  rather  than 
with  a  light  one,  as  the  considerable  bulk  of  the  silage  and 
roots  get  them  so  far  for  being  the  complement  of  the 
concentrates  which  have  little  bulk.  It  is  not  usual  to 
feed  more  than  three  to  five  pounds  of  silage  daily  to 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS  IN    WINTER  215 

sheep  that  are  being  fattened,  but  in  some  instances  twice 
these  amounts  are  fed.  Two  to  three  pounds  daily  are 
helpful,  because  of  the  influence  of  the  succulence  pres- 
ent, as  well  as  of  the  nutrients  in  such  food.  Nor  is  it 
usual  to  feed  more  than  four  to  five  pounds  of  field  roots 
daily,  save  when  fed  as  beet  pulp,  but  no  hazard  will  re- 
sult from  feeding  quantities  double  those  just  mentioned. 
Under  average  conditions  the  greatest  profit  will  doubt- 
less result  from  feeding  small  quantities  of  roots,  not  more 
probably  than  two  to  four  pounds  daily,  because  of  the 
beneficent  influence  which  these  exercise  on  the  diges- 
tion. They  are  a  safeguard  under  heavy  feeding  of  grain, 
and  the  heavier  the  feeding  of  the  grain  and  the  more 
concentrated  it  is,  the  more  advantageous  is  such  a  safe- 
guard. 

Concentrates  that  are  suitable — There  is  no  kind  of 
grain  grown  on  this  continent  that  may  not  be  used  in 
fattening  sheep.  These  grains  include  corn,  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  rye,  speltz  and  Canada  field  peas  in  the  North, 
sorghum  seed  both  in  the  saccharine  and  non-saccharine 
varieties  in  the  states  further  South,  and  cowpeas  and  soy 
beans  in  states  where  these  may  be  successfully  grown. 
There  is  also  the  by-product  of  certain  cereals  known  as 
screenings.  Of  these  corn  will  probably  be  used  to  a 
greater  extent  than  any  other  concentrate,  for  the  reason 
that  it  is  more  extensively  grown  than  any  other,  and 
that  it  is  relatively  cheaper.  Wheat  has  high  adaptation 
for  fattening  sheep,  as  shown  in  many  experiments,  but 
the  high  price  which  it  commands  forbids  feeding  it  thus. 
It  is  at  least  doubtful  if  wheat  will  ever  again  be  fed  in 
this  way  in  any  considerable  quantities,  unless  it  should 
be  damaged,  as  by  untimely  frost.  Oats  are  excellent 
fed  alone  or  in  combination  with  other  foods,  but  usually 
the  high  price  which  they  bring  makes  them  a  somewhat 
expensive  grain  food.  What  is  said  of  oats  will  apply  al- 
most equally  to  barley.  The  amount  of  rye  grown  rela- 
tively restricts  its  use.  It  is  not  wise  to  feed  it  as  the  sole 


2l6  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

grain  feed  for  long  periods,  lest  the  digestion  should  be 
impaired,  but  it  is  an  excellent  food  when  properly  com- 
bined with  other  grains.  Speltz  has  a  feeding  value  not 
far  below  or  different  from  barley.  Canada  field  peas 
are  excellent,  but  feeding  them  can  only  become  general 
in  areas  south  and  west  where  they  are  plentifully  grown. 
The  sorghum  seeds  furnish  a  rich  food  and  they  may  be 
fed  in  the  head  without  being  threshed  out.  While  cow- 
peas  and  soy  beans  are  excellent  food  for  sheep  when 
fattening,  the  market  price  puts  them  almost  out  of  reach 
of  the  feeder  in  the  meantime.  Screenings  are  an  ex- 
cellent and  a  safe  food,  as  has  been  shown  time  and  again 
in  the  experience  of  those  who  have  fed  sheep  by  the 
hundred  and  the  thousand  at  the  stockyards. 

Some  of  these  foods  will  fatten  sheep  in  reasonably 
good  form  when  fed  alone,  especially  when  the  roughage 
fed  is  of  a  character  that  will  make  the  ration  approxi- 
mately balanced.  These  include  corn,  oats,  peas  and 
screenings.  Usually,  however,  better  results  will  be  ob- 
tained from  feeding  these  in  combination  with  some  other 
food  or  foods.  When  more  than  two  are  combined,  the 
foods  are  eaten  with  more  of  a  relish  than  when  a  less 
number  is  fed.  Some  food  when  present  in  the  grain 
ration  will  in  nearly  all  instances  add  to  their  feeding 
value  though  present  in  limited  quantity.  Wheat  bran 
is  one  of  these,  but  it  is  less  relished  by  sheep  than  some 
other  foods  and,  therefore,  should  be  fed  only  in  moderate 
quantities.  Oilcake  is  another,  and  though  highly  rel- 
ished, the  price  forbids  feeding  it  heavily.  These  aid  in 
maintaining  health,  more  especially  when  the  animals  are 
subjected  to  high  pressure  feeding.  Cottonseed  meal  may 
be  fed  instead  of  bran  or  oilcake,  but  when  fed  heavily 
it  is  not  so  safe  a  food  as  these.  Oats  also  aid  in  keep- 
ing the  digestion  in  tone.  When  oilcake  cannot  be  had, 
a  less  amount  of  flaxseed  will  answer,  though  not  quite 
so  well,  in  its  stead. 

When  clover,  alfalfa  or  other  leguminous  fodder  is 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS   IN    WINTER  217 

being  fed,  the  following  grain  rations  will  be  found  suit- 
able after  the  sheep  have  been  brought  up  to  full  feeding : 
Corn,  sorghum  seed,  barley,  wheat,  oats  or  peas,  with  say 
five  per  cent  of  wheat  bran  or  oilcake  added,  and  in  the 
case  of  corn  and  sorghum  seed  a  larger  per  cent.  When 
four  to  five  pounds  of  roots  are  fed  a  day,  the  bran  and 
oilcake  may  be  dispensed  with,  but  when  these  and  roots 
also  are  included  in  the  ration,  the  results  will  usually 
be  even  more  favorable.  At  the  Wyoming  station,  alfalfa, 
turnips  and  corn,  alfalfa,  turnips  and  barley,  alfalfa,  tur- 
nips, corn  and  flaxseed,  were  all  found  to  make  cheap 
gains,  while  alfalfa,  turnips  and  flaxseed  made  the  cheap- 
est gains  that  were  realized. 

When  the  roughage  is  ordinary  hay  and  corn  or 
sorghum  fodders,  the  following  may  be  used  among  the 
grain  rations  that  will  usually  prove  satisfactory  in  fat- 
tening sheep  and  lambs:  (i)  Corn  or  barley,  bran  and 
oilcake  in  the  proportion  of  say  75,  15  and  10  per  cent  by 
weight.  (2)  Corn,  barley,  rye  or  sorghum  seed ;  oats ; 
bran  and  oilcake  in  the  proportions  of  50,  25  15  and  10 
per  cent.  (3)  Corn,  sorghum  seed  or  rye;  barley;  oats; 
bran  and  oilcake  in  the  proportions  of  40,  20,  20,  15  and 
5  per  cent.  (4)  Canada  field  peas  and  bran  or  Canada 
field  peas  and  oilcake,  in  the  proportions  of  90  and  10  per 
cent  in  the  first  instance  and  95  and  5  per  cent  in  the 
second  instance.  (5)  Peas;  oats;  bran  and  oilcake  in  the 
proportions  of  50,  40,  5  and  5  per  cent.  (6)  Oats  and  oil- 
cake in  the  proportions  of  90  and  10  per  cent  respectively. 
(7)  Wheat  screenings  fed  alone  or  with  almost  any  other 
kind  of  grain  added. 

The  following  observations  apply  to  the  feeding  of 
grain  to  sheep  and  lambs  that  are  being  fattened:  (i) 
Gluten  meal  may  be  fed  in  lieu  of  corn  meal  or  bran  and 
in  the  same  quantities  as  oilmeal.  (2)  When  bran  is  fed 
rather  than  gluten  or  oilmeal,  about  twice  the  quantity 
should  be  fed.  (3)  When  field  roots  are  sufficiently  plen- 
tiful, bran,  oilcake  and  gluten  meal  may  be  dispensed 


218  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

with,  but  there  is  no  objection  to  feeding  them  other  than 
that  which  arises  from  cost.  (4)  Since  corn  is  as  a  rule 
the  cheapest  grain  food,  the  aim  should  be  to  make  it 
form  as  large  a  part  of  the  ration  as  is  compatible  with 
the  requirements.  (5)  While  oats  furnish  a  reasonably 
good  fattening  food  when  fed  alone,  the  ration  is  much 
improved  by  feeding  corn  freely  along  with  the  oats.  (6) 
While  the  aim  should  be  to  feed  the  grains  so  as  to  bal- 
ance the  fodders,  because  of  the  cheapness  of  some  kinds 
of  grain,  it  may  be  more  profitable  to  feed  them  some- 
what out  of  balance.  (7)  The  value  of  wheat  screenings, 
one  of  the  safest  of  foods,  may  vary  from  what  is  simply 
nominal  in  a  concentrate  to  what  is  highest  value  in  the 
same,  according  as  they  contain  much  or  little  grain. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  grind  the  grain  fed  to  sheep 
and  lambs  that  are  being  fattened  any  more  than  it  is  to 
chaff  the  coarse  fodders  for  the  same.  They  chew  their 
food  finely,  hence  the  digestion  is  very  complete.  The 
only  benefit  from  grinding  screenings  is  that  which  arises 
from  making  it  impossible  for  the  sheep  to  scatter  the 
weed  seeds  while  eating  them.  They  are  usually  fed 
unground.  When  the  cobs  are  fed  with  the  corn,  of 
course  both  must  be  ground.  It  has  not  yet  been  shown 
that  such  grinding  will  prove  profitable. 

The  amount  of  food  consumed  by  the  sheep  will  vary 
with  the  age,  size  and  breed  of  the  sheep.  Sheep  more 
than  one  year  old  will  consume  more  food  than  lambs, 
and  they  will  also  consume  more  in  proportion  to  the  differ- 
ence in  the  weights.  It  would  seem  safe  to  say  that  sheep 
beyond  the  age  of  one  year  will  consume  not  less  than 
33  per  cent  more  food  than  lambs,  the  age  at  which  they 
are  usually  fattened.  Such  lambs  when  on  full  feed  will 
consume  about  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  daily  of 
grain,  the  amount,  of  course,  varying  with  the  decree  of 
the  concentration.  About  the  same  quantity  of  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay  of  high  quality  will  be  consumed,  but  a  larger 
amount  will  be  necessary,  of  course,  when  a  part  is  re- 


FATTENING    SHEEP   AND   LAMBS   IN    WINTER  219 

jected  because  of  coarseness  or  for  other  reasons.  Lawes 
and  Gibbert  found  that  sheep  consumed  food  approx- 
imately in  proportion  to  their  respective  weights.  It  is 
probably  true  that  breed  exercises  no  other  influence  on 
food  consumption  than  that  which  results  from  variation 
in  size. 

The  following  observations,  general  in  character,  ap- 
ply to  the  feeding  of  sheep  on  a  finishing  ration  in  winter : 
(i)  The  aim  should  be  to  have  the  feeding  racks  placed 
under  cover  except  in  climates  dry  and  comparatively  free 
from  winter  storms.  The  rack  space  for  lambs  should 
give  from  8  to  12  inches  to  each  lamb,  and  for  older  sheep 
proportionately  more.  (2)  More  commonly  the  food  is 
given  in  two  feeds  daily — that  is,  morning  and  evening — 
and  the  aim  should  be  to  give  the  food  after  morning  has 
dawned  and  before  the  darkness  of  night  has  come.  The 
work  of  feeding  is  thus  more  expeditiously  done,  and  the 
resting  of  the  sheep  is  not  thus  disturbed.  (3)  Care 
should  be  taken  to  clean  out  all  the  food  usually  before 
giving  other  food.  The  remnant  left,  if  any,  may  be  used 
for  bedding  or  fed  to  other  stock,  according  to  the  quality. 
The  influence  on  food  consumption  will  be  helpful.  But, 
of  course,  when  sheep  are  fed  on  the  self-feeding  plan 
such  removal  of  rejected  food  is  not  entirely  practicable. 
(4)  Much  care  should  be  exercised  in  observing  regular- 
ity in  feeding.  Sheep  cannot  be  made  to  consume  food 
exactly  fitted  to  their  needs  when  they  are  fed  irregu- 
larly. (5)  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  them  as  free  as 
possible  from  disturbing  influences.  They  are  very  timid, 
and  unless  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  strangers,  as 
when  fed  at  experiment  stations,  such  visitations,  and  in 
a  greater  degree  the  presence  of  dogs,  will  hinder  their 
gains.  (6)  They  should  be  given  access  to  salt  at  all 
times,  kept  in  boxes  under  cover,  and  in  a  condition  free 
from  incrustation.  When  given  irregularly  the  animals 
will  then  drink  too  much  water  to  make  good  increase. 
(7)  Water  must  be  plentifully  supplied,  and  of  good 


220 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS  IN    WINTER  221 

quality,  if  the  sheep  are  to  make  the  requisite  gains. 
When  large  lots  are  fed,  it  may  be  taken  from  vessels 
supplied  with  floats  to  regulate  the  supply.  To  small 
lots  it  may  be  furnished  in  buckets  or  tubs  in  the  sheds. 
Larger  quantities  of  water  will  be  consumed  by  sheep 
that  are  being  fattened,  especially  in  the  absence  of  field 
roots  or  silage.  It  is  quite  practicable  to  feed  field  roots 
to  the  extent  of  rendering  it  unnecessary  to  furnish  any 
water.  (8)  When  fattening  sheep  and  lambs  in  winter, 
no  practical  benefit  bearing  on  increase  results  from 
shearing  them  before  putting  them  on  a  fattening  ration. 
This  conclusion  rests  on  the  result  of  general  experi- 
ments conducted  by  experiment  stations,  one  of  which 
was  conducted  by  the  author  at  the  experiment  station 
at  Guelph,  Ont.,  Canada.  It  was  found,  however,  that 
lambs  thus  fattened  reached  the  market  of  Great  Britain 
in  a  form  that  was  more  attractive  to  the  buyer  than  lambs 
not  shorn  when  the  fattening  began.  Prof.  John  A.  Craig 
also  found  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  that  shearing  lambs 
not  more  than  six  months  old  was  helpful  in  preparing 
them  for  autumn  fattening,  provided  the  shearing  was 
done  not  later  than  early  October.  But  when  the  fatten- 
ing of  sheep  or  lambs  is  carried  on  into  the  springtime, 
the  fattening  will  be  more  rapid  if  the  fleece  is  removed 
as  soon  as  the  weather  grows  warm. 

Self-feeders  and  their  place — Self-feeding  of  sheep 
means  allowing  them  to  take  their  food  from  boxes  or 
racks,  according  to  the  kind  of  the  food,  whenever  they 
want  to  eat  from  the  same.  The  racks  in  which  the  hay 
is  fed,  and  also  the  boxes  in  which  the  grain  is  fed,  are  so 
constructed  that  the  food  is  continually  accessible.  In 
some  instances  the  grain  only  is  fed  in  self-feeders,  the 
coarse  fodder  being  supplied  once  or  twice  each  day. 

Self-feeders  for  grain  are  simply  oblong  boxes  with 
considerably  more  width  at  the  top  than  the  bottom. 
When  exposed  they  have  a  roof  to  protect  the  grain.  In 
this  roof  is  a  hinged  lid,  which  extends  along  much  or  all 


222  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

of  the  roof,  through  which  the  grain  is  admitted  to  the 
boxes.  Near  the  base  of  the  sides  is  an  opening  running 
the  entire  length  of  the  boxes,  and  through  this  opening 
the  grain  comes  down  into  low  troughs  as  fast  as  it  is 
eaten  by  the  sheep.  Under  the  box  supports  are  placed 
which  raise  it  high  enough  from  the  ground  to  allow  the 
sheep  to  eat  the  food  with  comfort.  The  hay  racks  used 
are  in  some  instances  of  somewhat  similar  construction. 

Although  self-feeders  may  sometimes  be  used  with 
advantage  on  the  ordinary  farm,  the  wisdom  of  using 
them  is  to  be  questioned.  The  sheep,  when  taking  food, 
leave  more  or  less  saliva  on  the  uneaten  grain  in  the  box, 
which  fact  detracts  somewhat  from  its  palatability, 
resulting  in  a  less  consumption  of  the  food.  When  the 
sheep  have  access  at  all  times  to  the  food,  the  appetite 
is  less  keen  for  taking  food  than  when  they  take  it  at 
stated  times  and  in  a  way  that  consumes  the  entire 
amount  fed  at  each  time  of  feeding.  Experiments  con- 
ducted have  tended  to  show  that  such  feeding  is  expen- 
sive, notwithstanding  the  saving  in  labor.  They  have 
also  shown  that  with  some  kinds  of  food  it  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  maintain  the  sheep  in  good  health  when  thus  fed. 
Such  was  the  experience  of  the  author  in  feeding  lambs  at 
the  Minnesota  station.  Nevertheless,  there  is  a  place  for 
self-feeders,  as  when  sheep  are  fed  in  a  wholesale  way  at 
the  stock  yards,  and  it  may  be  at  large  feeding  stations  in 
the  semi-range  country.  Where  wheat  screenings  is  the 
chief  grain  food  fed,  as  it  is  usually  at  the  stock  yards, 
the  use  of  self-feeders  is  more  justifiable  than  elsewhere, 
as  is  shown  below. 

All  kinds  of  grain  cannot  be  fed  in  self-feeders  with 
equal  advantage.  The  more  concentrated  and  rich  the 
grain  food,  the  more  hazard  is  there  in  feeding  it  thus.  It 
would  be  disastrous  to  feed  corn  alone  in  self-feeders  for 
any  long-continued  period,  as  the  tax  thus  put  upon  the 
energies  of  the  system  in  digesting  quantities  so  large 
of  such  a  food  would  result  in  derangement  of  the  diges- 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS   IN    WINTER  223 

tive  organs,  which  in  some  instances  would  terminate 
fatally.  Similar  results  would  follow  from  feeding  some 
other  grain  foods  alone,  but  perhaps  not  quite  so  quickly. 
When  rich  concentrates  are  fed  in  self-feeders,  they 
should  be  diluted,  so  to  speak,  by  mixing  with  them  other 
foods,  such  as  wheat,  bran,  oats  or  wheat  screenings. 
When  the  excess  of  concentration  for  such  feeding  of 
these  foods  alone  is  thus  lowered  sufficiently,  it  is  possi- 
ble to  feed  any  kind  of  grain,  however  rich,  in  self-feeders 
with  reasonable  safety. 

Fattening  sheep  on  sugar  beet  pulp — Sheep  and 
lambs  are  in  some  instances  fattened  in  a  large  way  in 
proximity  to  sugar  beet  factories.  The  principal  food  fed 
is  sugar  beet  pulp ;  but,  of  course,  other  adjuncts  are  fed 
more  or  less  in  conjunction  with  the  pulp.  The  sheep  are 
kept  in  yards.  In  mild  areas,  as,  for  instance  the  valleys 
of  Colorado  and  other  mountain  states  of  a  similar  or 
lower  latitude,  sheds  are  not  provided,  but  in  areas  with 
colder  winters  and  frequent  precipitation,  as  Michigan, 
sheds  are  necessary.  In  the  middle  areas  referred  to,  the 
pulp  is  usually  drawn  from  the  pit  or  inclosure  into  which 
it  is  conveyed  from  the  factory.  It  is  drawn  from  day  to 
day.  In  some  instances  it  is  fed  in  troughs.  In  other 
instances  the  feed  of  hay  for  the  day  is  strewn  along  the 
fence  that  surrounds  the  yard.  The  pulp  is  thrown  onto 
this  hay  from  the  wagons  which  convey  it.  The  sheep 
eat  the  pulp,  and  thus  the  hay,  by  putting  their  heads 
through  an  opening  between  the  fence  boards  that  has 
been  made  for  such  a  use.  There  is  some  waste  from  such 
feeding,  but  not  so  much  as  would  be  looked  for  by  those 
unaccustomed  to  seeing  it.  When  feeding  small  lots  on 
the  farm  and  more  distant  from  the  factories,  it  would  be 
necessary  when  the  winter  climate  is  severe,  to  draw  the 
pulp  and  put  it  in  a  silo  before  the  season  of  hard  freez- 
ing. From  this  it  may,  of  course,  be  fed  at  will  as  desired. 

The  pulp  may  be  fed  ever  so  freely  to  the  sheep.  It 
has  been  claimed  that  it  is  more  valuable  as  a  food  than 


224  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

the  beets,  as  any  salts  inimical  to  the  needs  of  the  sheep 
are  washed  out  in  the  process  of  manufacturing  the  beets. 
The  amount  of  feed  will  be  influenced  by  the  size  of  the 
sheep  and  by  the  respective  amounts  of  hay  and  grain 
fed.  As  many  as  10  pounds  per  animal  daily  have  been 
fed  with  advantage,  but  more  commonly  not  more  than 
five  to  six  pounds  are  fed  daily  along  with  fodder  and 
grain.  It  is  entirely  practicable  to  finish  sheep  and  lambs 
on  alfalfa  hay  and  beet  pulp,  but  a  better  finish  is  made 
when  a  small  amount  of  grain  is  fed  all  the  while,  or  a 
larger  amount  fed  only  toward  the  close  of  the  feeding 
season.  The  pulp  has  high  adaptation  for  feeding  sheep 
so  old  that  the  teeth  have  begun  to  fail,  as  they  are  able 
to  consume  it  without  difficulty. 

Any  kind  of  fodder  may  be  fed  with  the  pulp  that  is 
nutritious  and  palatable.  In  the  western  valleys  alfalfa 
is  commonly  fed  along  with  beet  pulp  owing  to  its  abun- 
dant growth  in  them.  The  alfalfa  and  pulp  furnish  a  grand 
food  for  growing  sheep  and  a  very  cheap  food  for  finish- 
ing them,  but  the  finish  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  when 
some  grain  is  fed.  Clover  when  it  can  be  obtained  is  about 
equally  satisfactory  with  alfalfa,  but  hay  from  the  grasses 
or  corn  or  sorghum  fodder  will  suffice. 

Corn  has  peculiar  adaptation  for  being  fed  along  with 
sugar  beet  pulp  and  any  leguminous  fodder,  as  clover  or 
alfalfa.  Good  results  will  be  obtained  from  feeding  one 
pound  daily  to  lambs,  but  in  some  instances  more  is  fed. 
The  heavier  feeding  of  corn  is  most  important  toward 
the  close  of  the  feeding  period.  Barley  is  also  good,  but 
other  grains  may  be  substituted  for  either  corn  or  barley. 

The  feeding  of  the  pulp  in  the  dry  form  to  sheep  or 
lambs  that  are  being  fattened  has  scarcely  begun  in 
America,  but  it  may  yet  be  extensively  used  for  such  fat- 
tening. 

Feeding  sheep  on  western  ranges — Sheep  and  lambs 
are  frequently  fattened  in  a  large  way  in  certain  areas  of 
at  least  some  of  the  range  states  in  proximity  to  lands 


FATTENING    SHEEP   AND   LAMBS   IN    WINTER  225 

usually  irrigated  which  produce  alfalfa  in  great  abun- 
dance. In  some  instances  they  are  fed  somewhat  similarly 
in  states  which  border  on  the  range  country  to  the  east. 
Many  thousands  are  fattened  simultaneously  at  some  of 
these  feeding  stations. 

Usually  the  yards  are  so  arranged  that  only  half  the 
number  are  occupied  at  one  time.  This  arrangement  is 
intended  to  furnish  the  opportunity  to  replenish  the  feed 
racks  in  the  yards  not  occupied.  In  other  instances  the 
grain  is  fed  in  self-feeders,  but  the  sheep  are  only  allowed 
to  eat  for  a  limited  time,  when  another  lot  is  admitted. 
In  many  instances  the  yards  are  arranged  on  both  sides 
of  a  driveway  for  convenience  in  feeding  the  hay.  No 
shelter  is  provided  other  than  what  will  ward  off  the 
wind.  Salt  is  continually  before  them  and  water  is  always 
accessible.  In  each  yard  from  400  to  500  sheep  are  fed. 

In  some  instances  the  hay  is  fed  on  the  ground  on  the 
two  sides  of  the  driveway.  From  day  to  day  it  is  strewn 
along  the  fences.  The  sheep  eat  it  by  putting  the  head 
through  a  7  or  8-inch  space  between  the  boards  in  the 
fence.  In  other  instances  it  is  fed  in  wide  racks  in  the 
yards,  as  wide  as,  say,  12  to  18  feet.  The  8-inch  boards 
that  form  the  sides  of  these  racks  run  lengthwise,  and  the 
sheep  take  the  hay  through  the  openings  between  them. 
As  the  hay  is  eaten  it  is  pushed  forward.  In  yet  other 
instances  the  stacks  are  placed  close  up  to  the  outer  fence, 
and  as  it  is  eaten  it  also  is  pushed  forward. 

More  commonly  the  grain  is  fed  in  limited  supply. 
The  necessity  for  feeding  it  thus  arises  from  the  fact  that 
usually  corn  is  fed  with  sometimes  a  small  percentage  of 
oilcake  in  it.  Unlimited  access  to  such  food  would  be 
attended  with  hazard.  It  is  fed  at  first  in  small  quantities, 
and  in  few  instances  does  the  amount  fed  exceed  one  and 
one-half  pounds  each  day  for  mature  sheep  when  on  full  feed. 

As  the  food  is  all  dry,  large  amounts  of  water  are 
consumed,  which  is  usually  pumped  up  fresh  by  wind- 
mills from  day  to  day.  When  fattening  sheep  and  lambs 


226  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

thus,  the  aim  is  to  keep  down  the  outlay  for  labor  to  a 
minimum,  as  such  labor  is  relatively  costly  in  the  far 
West.  Such  a  system  of  feeding  is  more  or  less  wasteful 
of  hay,  and  the  manure  resulting  is  not  always  used  to  the 
best  advantage  because  of  the  expense  of  applying  it. 

Fattening  sheep  on  screenings — The  feeding  of 
screenings  has  already  been  touched  upon  (see  page  218). 
Screenings  may  be  obtained  from  any  kind  of  grain  that 
calls  for  winnowing.  In  the  merchantable  sense  they  are 
obtained  by  the  screening  of  grain  at  elevators,  in  which 
it  is  sent  directly  from  the  threshing  machine.  In  addi- 
tion to  small  and  shrunken  grain  and  broken  kernels,  the 
screenings  contain  the  seeds  of  all  kinds  of  weeds  that 
have  grown  in  the  crops.  Sheep  are  very  fond  of  these, 
partly  for  the  reason  that  they  are  fond  of  variety,  and 
the  nutritive  properties  are  such  that  sheep  usually  fatten 
satisfactorily  on  such  food.  Screenings  furnish  one  of  the 
most  healthful  of  fattening  foods,  but  in  some  instances 
wild  mustard  seeds  are  present  to  the  extent  of  being 
prejudicial  to  the  health  of  the  sheep,  because  of  their 
over-stimulating  character.  Screenings  largely  composed 
of  shrunken  grains  of  wheat  are  about  as  valuable  for 
feeding  sheep  as  good  wheat.  On  the  other  hand  screen- 
ings may  contain  so  much  broken  straw  and  so  little  nutri- 
ment as  to  be  of  little  value  in  feeding  sheep,  unless  corn 
or  some  other  rich  grain  food  is  mixed  in  with  them  or  is 
fed  as  supplemental  to  them. 

Screenings  are  usually  fed  only  at  the  stock  yards, 
where  sheep  and  lambs  are  fed  in  sheds  in  a  wholesale 
way,  or  at  certain  other  feeding  centers,  where  they  are 
similarly  fed.  They  are  so  fed  because  they  are  sent 
away  from  the  farm  when  the  grain  is  sold.  In  order  to 
feed  them  on  farms,  the  farmer  would  have  to  buy  what 
he  or  some  of  his  neighbors  previously  gave  away,  and  in 
addition  would  have  to  pay  the  cost  of  transit.  Hay  is 
fed  in  addition  to  the  screenings,  but  the  main  dependence 
is  on  screenings. 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS   IN    WINTER  22/ 

As  has  been  intimated,  screenings  are  in  nearly  all 
instances  fed  in  self-feeders,  and  for  such  feeding  they  are 
one  of  the  safest  of  foods.  Notwithstanding,  even  screen- 
ings will  give  better  results,  viewed  apart  from  the  cost 
of  feeding,  when  fed  only  in  such  quantities  as  will  be 
eaten  clean  by  the  sheep. 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  farm  and  its  needs, 
it  would  be  much  wiser  to  clean  the  grain  and  keep  the 
screenings  for  feeding  on  the  farm.  Because  of  this  it  is 
not  too  much  to  expect  that  the  day  is  not  distant  when 
the  farmer  will  cease  to  give  away  his  screenings  and  will 
feed  them  at  home.  That  he  does  give  them  away  is 
certain,  as  on  every  bushel  of  grain  sent  to  the  elevator 
there  is  a  certain  amount  of  dockage  because  of  the  pres- 
ence of  screenings.  In  addition  to  the  cost  of  the  screen- 
ings for  feeding  on  the  farm  is  the  loss  of  the  fertility 
that  would  have  resulted  from  feeding  them. 

Fattening  two  lots  in  succession — It  is  quite  prac- 
ticable to  fatten  two  lots  of  sheep  in  succession  during  the 
same  winter.  When  this  can  be  done  the  profit  should  be 
greater  than  when  one  lot  only  is  fattened,  other  things 
being  equal,  as  it  results  in  the  more  complete  utilization 
of  the  plant.  Such  feeding  may  be  conducted,  not  only 
on  the  farm,  but  also  at  feeding  plants  established  else- 
where. The  chief  obstacle  to  be  overcome  in  relation  to 
such  feeding  is  the  greater  difficulty  found  in  obtaining 
the  sheep  or  lambs  for  feeding  at  the  season  when  it  is 
usual  to  put  the  second  lot  on  feed.  Such  feeding  is  made 
possible  by  the  comparatively  short  season  called  for  to 
make  sheep  ready  for  the  market. 

The  first  lot  is  put  on  feed  when  cool  weather  is  ap- 
proaching, say  about  November  i..  In  three  months  they 
will  usually  be  ready  for  the  market.  They  are  then  sold 
at  a  season  when  prices  for  mutton  are  relatively  good ; 
that  is,  in  February.  If  put  on  feed  much  earlier  they 
would  be  ready  to  market  at  the  holiday  season  or  dur- 


228  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ing  the  period  of  comparative  slack  demand  for  meat  im- 
mediately following  that  season. 

The  feeding  of  the  second  lot  may  begin  immediately 
after  the  sale  of  the  first  lot.  When  put  on  foods  for  fat- 
tening, say  not  later  than  the  middle  of  February,  they 
will  be  ready  for  market  not  later  than  May  15.  If  they 
can  be  put  upon  a  finishing  ration  at  the  beginning  of 
February,  then  they  may  be  sold  early  in  May,  a  month 
during  which  good  prices  usually  prevail  for  such  meat, 
as  grass-finished  animals  have  not  yet  reached  the  market. 
But  they  should  be  shorn  without  fail  when  the  weather 
begins  to  get  warm. 

Where  such  feeding  can  be  conducted,  especially  on  the 
arable  farm,  the  benefit  therefrom  will  be  apparent.  In  addi- 
tion to  any  direct  profit  that  may  result,  the  fertilizer  pro- 
duced is  doubled,  which  is  a  matter  of  great  importance 
to  the  feeder  whose  lands  call  for  additional  fertilizer.  It 
would  even  be  practicable  to  finish  three  lots  of  sheep 
within  the  year  on  the  same  farm,  and  the  first  lot  in  such 
instances  would  be  finished  on  grazing  such  as  rape,  and 
marketed  not  later  than  November  I. 

Hazard  to  breeding  flocks — The  fattening  of  sheep 
and  lambs  on  the  arable  farm,  when  the  supplies  for  fat- 
tening are  purchased  is  attended  with  no  little  hazard  to 
the  breeding  flock  when  one  is  kept  upon  the  same  farm. 
Such  hazard  consists  in  the  possible,  if  not  indeed  proba- 
ble, introduction  of  parasites,  such  as  tape  and  stomach 
worms.  Where  the  feeders  are  purchased  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  know  whether  these  and  certain  other  parasites  are 
present  or  not.  The  presence  of  such  insects  as  scab 
mites  and  ticks  may  usually  be  discovered  at  the  time  of 
purchase,  and  by  making  proper  use  of  dipping  tanks 
their  introduction  to  the  farms  may  be  prevented.  If 
purchased  at  the  stockyards  the  dipping  may  most  con- 
veniently be  done  at  the  stockyards,  but  if  purchased  else- 
where it  must  be  done  on  the  farm.  To  make  sure  that 
all  the  insects  will  be  destroyed  when  scab  is  present,  two 


. 

FATTENING  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS  IN   WINTER  229 

dippings  should  be  given.  Since  the  presence  of  internal 
parasites  cannot  usually  be  known  when  sheep  are  pur- 
chased, when  brought  to  farms  for  fattening  they  should 
not  be  allowed  access  either  to  the  pastures  on  which  the 
breeding  flocks  graze,  or  the  pens  in  which  they  are  con- 
fined. Although  the  life  history  of  these  parasites  is  not 
fully  known,  experience  has  abundantly  proved  that 
breeding  flocks  may  be  infected  through  the  introduction 
of  sheep  for  fattening.  The  danger  would  seem  to  be 
greatest  when  sheep  thus  introduced  are  given  access  to 
the  pastures  on  which  the  breeding  flocks  graze.  If  the 
sheep  introduced  can  be  confined  to  sheds  and  yards  to 
which  the  breeding  flocks  have  no  access,  the  hazard  in- 
curred is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Because  of  the  hazard  of  introducing  parasitical  dis- 
eases, it  is  at  least  questionable  if  sheep  should  be  brought 
in  to  be  fattened  on  the  same  farm  on  which  a  breeding 
flock  is  kept.  Where  practicable  it  would  seem  better  to 
increase  the  breeding  flock  to  the  full  capacity  of  the  farm, 
and  to  fatten  on  it  only  such  supplies  as  the  farm  was 
thus  able  to  furnish.  The  importance  of  keeping  breed- 
ing flocks  of  sheep  free  from  parasites  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  the  danger  of 
introducing  parasites  with  sheep  purchased  on  other 
farms  is  as  great  as  when  they  are  purchased  at  the  stock- 
yards. 

Sheep  fattened  only  on  the  farm — It  is  unfortunate  in 
several  respects  that  all  the  sheep  and  lambs  that  are  fat- 
tened are  not  finished  on  the  farm.  The  benefits  from 
such  feeding  include  the  following:  (i)  The  percentage 
of  loss  from  feeding  in  such  lots  is  less  than  in  those  that 
are  large ;  (2)  roughage  is  utilized  that  may  otherwise 
be  wasted;  (3)  the  fertilizer  is  turned  to  good  account; 
and  (4)  the  farmer  is  given  work  that  should  bring  a 
profitable  return  at  a  time  when  other  work  is  not  press- 
ing. 

The  percentage  of  loss  with  sheep  fed  in  small  lots 


230  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

is  less  than  with  sheep  fed  in  large  lots,  for  reasons  very 
similar  to  those  which  explain  the  greater  loss  in  breed- 
ing flocks  of  large  size  as  compared  with  those  of  small 
size.  These  include:  (i)  The  less  favorable  sanitary 
conditions  where  large  lots  are  kept,  from  the  less  pure 
character  of  the  air;  (2)  the  less  favorable  opportunity  for 
each  to  get  its  rightful  share  of  the  food;  and  (3)  the 
greater  opportunity  furnished  for  communicating  any 
communicable  form  of  ailments  that  may  invade  the  flock. 
These  cases,  however,  are  much  less  with  the  hardy 
Merinos  than  with  the  mutton  breeds,  especially  with 
those  of  large  size. 

On  every  farm  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  roughage 
that  may  be  turned  to  good  account  where  live  stock  is 
kept  or  fed,  which  would  not  be  so  used  but  for  the  pres- 
ence of  the  same.  Such  fodders  include  corn  stalks,  bean 
and  pea  straw,  and  the  straw  of  various  cereals.  These, 
of  course,  may  be  utilized  by  other  kinds  of  stock,  as 
horses  or  cattle,  if  present;  but  on  many  farms  it  may 
not  be  desirable  to  keep  these  in  numbers  that  will  con- 
sume all  the  rough  fodders  grown.  Such  is  the  case  fre- 
quently on  what  are  termed  grain  farms.  Where  sheep 
are  fed  in  large  lots,  both  the  fodders  and  the  grain  fed 
to  them  in  fattening  are  taken  from  the  farm,  and  the 
resultant  fertilizer  seldom  comes  back  again  to  the  farm 
from  which  it  was  taken. 

The  waste  of  fertilizer  when  sheep  are  kept  in  large 
lots  is  usually  very  great.  At  many  feeding  stations  but 
little  use  has  been  made  of  it  in  the  past.  In  some  in- 
stances in  the  West  it  has  been  loaded  on  to  flat  cars  at 
the  stockyards,  drawn  to  some  ravine  or  gully  and  then 
thrown  off  the  cars  into  it  as  the  easiest  way  of  disposing 
of  it.  At  feeding  stations  in  the  mountain  states  the 
waste  of  manure  is  also  frequently  very  great.  More  care, 
however,  is  now  being  taken  of  this  precious  commodity 
than  in  former  years.  When  the  sheep  are  fed  on  the 
farm,  all  the  fertilizer  made  may  be  readily  applied  and 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS   IN    WINTER  23! 

in  a  way  that  may  be  attended  with  but  little  loss  of  its 
useful  properties. 

When  sheep  are  fattened  on  the  farm  in  winter,  the 
feed  fed  to  them  should  result  in  more  profit  to  the  farmer 
than  if  the  same  were  disposed  of  by  selling  it  directly. 
In  this  way  the  door  is  opened  for  increasing  the  revenue 
of  the  farm  through  work  done  at  a  season  when  work 
is  usually  not  pressing.  The  advantage  from  increasing 
revenue  at  such  a  time  will  be  so  apparent  that  it  need 
not  be  dwelt  upon. 

Duration  of  the  fattening  period — The  duration  of 
the  fattening  period  will  depend  measurably  on  the  fol- 
lowing considerations,  along  with  some  others  that  may 
be  named:  (i)  The  relative  amount  of  protein  and  car- 
bohydrates respectively  in  the  ration ;  (2)  the  degree  of 
the  concentration  in  the  ration ;  (3)  the  way  in  which  the 
food  is  fed ;  (4)  the  nature  of  the  market ;  and  (5)  the  con- 
dition of  the  animals  when  put  on  feed.  The  more  protein 
and  the  less  carbohydrates  in  the  ration,  the  longer  the 
period  that  is  called  for  in  which  to  finish  the  sheep,  and 
vice  versa.  Foods  that  are  highly  concentrated,  like  corn, 
cannot  be  fed  safely  for  so  long  a  period  as  foods  less 
concentrated  and  more  bulky,  like  oats  and  field  roots. 
Sheep  or  lambs  cannot  be  fed  for  so  long  a  period  when 
the  food  is  fed  in  self-feeders  as  when  fed  only  up  to  the 
capacity  of  the  animals  to  consume  it  from  time  to  time 
with  a  relish.  Some  markets  call  for  sheep  with  a  some- 
what less  degree  of  finish  than  others ;  hence  it  is  not 
necessary  to  feed  them  for  so  long  a  period  for  the  former. 
That  sheep  low  in  flesh  when  put  on  feed  will  take  a 
longer  time  to  fatten  than  those  high  in  flesh  is  only  self- 
evident.  This  factor  alone  may  make  a  difference  of  sev- 
eral weeks  in  the  time  called  for  in  reaching  a  high  degree 
of  finish.  In  but  few  instances  are  sheep  or  lambs  fin- 
ished in  less  than  60  days,  and  they  can  only  be  finished 
thus  quickly  when  they  are  in  good  condition  as  to  flesh 
when  the  feeding  begins.  On  the  other  hand  the  feeding 


232  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

is  seldom  prolonged  for  more  than  120  days.  More  com- 
monly it  covers  a  period  of  about  90  days.  Lambs  call 
for  a  somewhat  longer  period  to  reach  high  flesh  than 
more  mature  sheep  as  they  make  muscle  in  a  greater  de- 
gree than  the  latter. 

When  sheep  and  lambs  are  fattened  within  a  short 
time,  concentrates  rich  in  the  elements  of  nutrition  must 
be  fed.  For  such  feeding  no  grain  has  higher  adaptation 
than  corn.  Finishing  within  short  periods  is  attended 
with  more  hazard  than  when  feeding  is  more  prolonged. 
The  mortality  attending  such  feeding  is  usually  greater 
than  when  the  period  of  feeding  is  more  extended. 

The  fattening  of  sheep  and  lambs  may  be  prolonged 
in  two  ways.  By  the  first  the  quantity  of  protein  fed  is 
large,  relatively,  and  by  the  second,  while  the  concentrate 
fed  is  chiefly  carbonaceous,  it  is  not  fed  up  to  the  limit 
of  the  capacity  of  the  animals  to  consume  it.  While  feed- 
ing in  the  latter  sense  may  be  more  costly  in  the  amount 
of  food  consumed  to  produce  the  necessary  finish,  the  less 
relative  loss  may  more  than  compensate  for  the  extra  food 
used. 

With  rare  exceptions,  the  aim  should  be  to  reach  a 
high  finish  in  the  animals  fed.  The  exceptions  include  such 
times  as  when  home-grown  food  supplies  are  short  and 
the  cost  of  purchased  foods  is  high,  and  when  an  early 
winter  brings  fattening  on  the  pastures  to  an  abrupt  close 
under  conditions  which  preclude  the  continuance  of  the 
fattening  process  in  sheds.  High  finish  and  top  market 
prices  are  almost  invariably  associated.  An  advance  of 
even  a  fraction  of  a  cent  a  pound  will  make  considerable 
difference  in  the  profits. 

Increase  from  sheep  while  fattening — Prominent 
among  the  conditions  that  affect  increase  are  breeding, 
individuality,  age,  and  food.  It  is  true  that  breed  influ- 
ences gains,  but  to  a  less  degree  than  individuality  in  the 
animals  that  are  being  fattened.  Sheep,  for  instance,  that 
have  been  developed  largely  for  the  wool  produced,  as  the 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND  LAMBS  IN    WINTER  233 

Merino  types,  do  not  usually  make  gains  quite  equal  to 
those  of  the  distinct  mutton  breeds.  Likewise  less  in- 
crease is  to  be  expected  from  culls  than  from  sheep  pos- 
sessed of  good  form  and  robust  individuality.  Lambs  will 
usually  make  larger  increase  than  sheep  that  are  older, 
and  the  relative  increase  grows  less  with  advancing  age. 
A  ration  well  furnished  with  protein  will  usually  be  at- 
tended with  largest  increase  during  the  early  stages  of 
fattening,  but  more  of  carbohydrates  are  wanted  during 
the  more  advanced  stages  to  make  rapid  increase. 

The  normal  increase  will  vary,  of  course,  with  the 
conditions  just  pointed  out.  Moderate  increase  in  lambs 
on  feed  will  approximate  7^4  pounds  per  month ;  good  in- 
crease, 10  pounds ;  and  excellent  increase,  12  pounds.  The 
normal  increase  from  wethers  and  other  mature  sheep  will 
probably  approximate  20  to  25  per  cent  less. 

The  source  of  the  profit  from  fattening  sheep  is  sel- 
dom found  in  the  increase  made  while  they  are  being  thus 
fattened.  It  comes  from  the  enhanced  value  of  each 
pound  of  the  live  weight  possessed  when  the  fattening 
process  began.  The  market  values  of  food  are  such  that 
in  nearly  all  instances  a  pound  of  increase  made  costs 
more  in  the  food  used  in  making  it  than  it  will  sell  for  in 
the  market,  and  yet  the  advance  in  value  of  each  pound 
of  the  original  weight  may  be  such  as  to  result  in  sub- 
stantial profits. 

Profit  in  fattening  in  winter — The  real  source  of  the 
profit  has  just  been  pointed  out,  and  yet  other  factors 
have  an  important  influence  in  determining  what  the  de- 
gree of  the  profit  shall  be,  if  any.  Chief  among  these  are 
the  prices  paid  for  the  animals  purchased,  if  purchased, 
and  received  for  them  when  marketed,  the  weight  when 
put  on  feed,  the  relative  increase  made  and  the  cost  of  the 
food  fed.  From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  apparent 
that  in  order  to  make  any  profit  on  the  animals  fed,  there 
must  be  some  increase  in  the  selling  over  the  buying 
price. 


234  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

To  make  a  very  moderate  profit,  experience  has 
shown  that  with  concentrates  at  one  cent  a  pound  the 
selling  price  should  exceed  the  buying  price  by  not  less 
than  one  cent  per  pound  live  weight.  To  make  a  good 
profit  the  former  should  exceed  the  latter  by  not  less  than 
\y2  cents  per  pound. 

The  marked  influence  of  the  weights  of  the  animals 
at  the  time  of  purchase  will  be  readily  apparent.  Thus 
if  one  animal  purchased  and  put  on  feed  weighs  100 
pounds  at  the  time  of  purchase  and  increases  in  value  one 
cent  per  pound  because  of  the  fattening,  and  if  another 
animal  weighs  but  60  pounds  under  similar  conditions  of 
purchase  and  sale,  the  increase  in  the  value  of  the  former 
at  the  time  of  purchase  will  be  40  cents  more  than  that  of 
the  latter.  At  first  thought  it  would  seem  more  profitable 
to  purchase  large  rather  than  small  animals  to  put  on 
feed,  but  in  practice  in  very  many  instances  this  does  not 
hold  true,  owing  to  the  bearing  of  other  influences 
affected  by  size  and  age,  as  the  purchase  and  sale  prices, 
rate  of  increase  and  cost  of  the  same. 

The  bearing  of  the  rate  of  increase  and  the  cost  of 
food  are  so  apparent  as  not  to  call  for  prolonged  dis- 
cussion. Rapid  increase  adds  to  profit  by  its  actual  value, 
by  reducing  the  cost  of  maintenance  and  by  the  salutary 
influence  which  it  exercises  on  condition.  When  the  cost 
of  concentrates  exceeds  one  cent  per  pound  and  the  selling 
price  of  the  finished  product  is  not  more  than  5  to  6  cents 
per  pound  live  weight,  careful  feeding  is  necessary  to  in- 
sure much  profit. 

The  relative  profit  from  feeding  lambs  and  wethers 
or  other  sheep  more  mature  than  lambs  will  vary  with 
conditions  such  as  relate  to  purchase  and  sale,  also  to  the 
value  of  food.  The  comparison  may  be  stated  thus : 
Lambs  usually  cost  more  per  pound  when  purchased, 
make  more  increase  and  at  less  cost  and  are  sold  at  an 
advance  in  price  greater,  as  a  rule,  than  that  obtained 
for  other  sheep ;  hence  the  margin  of  profit  on  lambs  is  in 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND  LAMBS  IN    WINTER  235 

many  instances  greater  than  the  same  from  more  mature 
sheep.  Nevertheless,  because  of  the  greater  weight  of 
the  more  mature  sheep  at  the  time  of  purchase,  the  ad- 
vance in  value  on  this  weight  may  in  some  instances  bring 
a  larger  margin  of  profit  from  these.  When  the  sheep 
are  grown  on  the  farm,  the  margin  of  profit  from  fatten- 
ing will  be  the  larger,  as  they  consume  from,  say,  20  to  30 
per  cent  less  food  for  the  increase  made.  Lambs  will  call 
for  approximately  500  pounds  of  grain  and  400  pounds  of 
hay  to  make  100  pounds  of  increase.  The  risk  from  loss 
during  the  feeding  is  also  less  with  lambs. 

Usually  the  finishing  of  aged  ewes  in  winter  is  the 
most  undesirable  kind  of  fattening  in  relation  to  sheep,  as 
they  feed  slowly,  make  increase  at  enhanced  cost  as  com- 
pared with  other  sheep,  are  fed  at  greater  hazard  and  are 
slower  of  sale.  But  in  some  instances  the  fattening  of 
these  may  fetch  a  good  margin  of  profit,  as  when  they 
may  be  purchased  cheaply  and  fattened  at  low  cost. 

General  observations  on  fattening — i.  The  fattening 
process  in  its  relation  to  the  carcass  proceeds  in  outline 
as  follows :  The  formation  of  fat  begins  internally  by 
creating  the  web  that  covers  the  intestines.  It  then  be- 
comes manifest  at  the  tailhead,  from  which  it  extends  for- 
ward on  both  sides  of  the  spine  to  the  neck.  It  is  then 
deposited  in  the  muscles.  The  kidneys  become  entirely 
covered,  the  muscular  tissue  becomes  marbled,  the  tail 
becomes  thick  and  stiff,  the  top  of  the  neck  broad,  and 
the  cod  or  udder  filled.  But  the  formation  of  fat  is  by  no 
means  uniform  in  sheep.  One  will  lay  on  the  largest  pro- 
portions of  fat  on  the  rump  and  parts  adjacent  thereto ; 
a  second  on  the  back ;  a  third  on  the  parts  adjoining  the 
forequarter,  as  the  neck,  breast  and  brisket;  a  fourth  on 
those  pertaining  to  the  hindquarter,  as  the  kidney  and 
flank ;  and  a  fifth  on  the  internal  organs  generally. 

2.  The  prominent  indications  of  ripeness  in  the  car- 
cass are :  Stiffness  and  thickness  at  the  root  of  the  tail ; 
a  good  covering  of  flesh  on  the  loin  and  back  generally, 


236  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

much  width  of  the  neck  above  and  fullness  of  the  breast 
below,  and  thickness  of  the  flank  front  and  rear.  If  fat 
is  lacking  at  the  tailhead,  it  will  not  be  found  elsewhere. 
If  abundantly  present  at  the  flanks  and  cod,  it  is  not  likely 
to  be  lacking  elsewhere.  That  degree  of  fatness  should 
not  be  sought  that  will  lead  to  the  rejection  of  a  large 
amount  of  fat  when  trimming  the  carcass. 

3.  The  rations  for  fattening  should  be  fed  in  approxi- 
mate balance  as  a  rule.    In  these  protein  foods  should  be 
used  with  much  freedom,  especially  with  lambs,  but  it 
would  be  easily  possible  to  feed  them  so  freely  as  to  re- 
sult in  protein  waste.    In  some  instances,  however,  it  may 
be  profitable  to  feed  protein  in  excess,  and  in  other  in- 
stances carbohydrates,  because  of  the  difference  in  the 
relative  value  of  these. 

4.  The  shrinkage  in  fat  sheep  and  lambs  in  transit 
will  vary  with  the  foods  used  in  fattening,  with  the  degree 
of  the  finish  and  with  the  time  occupied  in  reaching  the 
market.    The  more  succulent  the  foods  used  in  finishing, 
the  longer  relatively  will  be  the  shrinkage,  and  vice  versa. 
Well-finished  sheep  will  usually  shrink  less  than  those  of 
lower  finish.     The  longer  the  animals  are  in  transit  the 
more,  of  course,  will  they  shrink.     When  not  more  than 
one  to  two  days  are  occupied  in  transit,  the  shrinkage 
should  not  be  more  than,  say,  four  to  five  pounds  for  ani- 
mals averaging  100  pounds  live  weight.     In  journeys  on 
the  cars  covering  1,000  miles  approximately,  shrinkage  to 
the  extent  of  nine  to  10  per  cent  has  been  reported. 

5.  There  is  not  a  consensus  of  opinion  as  to  the  cause 
of  what  is  termed  "sheepy  flavor"  in  mutton,  nor  is  it 
easy  to  express  in  words  what  is  meant  by  the  term.    It 
is  that  flavor  sometimes  found  in  mutton  which  reminds 
those  who  have  come  in  contact  with  sheep  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  living  animal.     The  common  opinion  that  it 
is  caused  by  careless  dressing,  as  the  wool  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  flesh,  is  not  tenable,  as  the  flavor  is  some- 
times found  in  sheep  that  have  been  carefully  dressed.   It 


FATTENING   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS  IN    WINTER  237 

is  doubtless  caused  by  the  way  that  the  animals  have  been 
fed  and  by  the  condition  at  the  time  of  slaughter.  If  the 
sheep  are  not  improving,  but  rather  losing  flesh  at  the 
time  of  slaughter,  the  less  active  conditions  of  the  ex- 
cretory organs  removes  less  perfectly  from  the  system  all 
the  waste  products.  This  view  finds  countenance  in  the 
fact  that  the  flavor  referred  to  is  not  present  in  mutton 
well  fed  and  well  finished. 


CHAPTER  XII 

MILK   LAMBS   AND   HOW   TO   OBTAIN,   GROW 
AND  MARKET  THEM 

Chapter  XII  considers  the  following  phases  of  this 
question:  (i)  What  is  meant  by  a  milk  lamb;  (2)  The 
essentials  in  a  milk  lamb ;  (3)  How  to  obtain  milk  lambs ; 
(4)  How  to  change  the  breeding  habit  in  ewes ;  (5)  Expe- 
rience at  the  Minnesota  station ;  (6)  Milk  lambs  other 
than  from  Dorset  sires ;  (7)  Where  milk  lambs  should  be 
grown ;  (8)  The  quarters  suitable  for  milk  lambs ;  (9) 
Care  and  food  for  the  dams ;  ( 10)  Care  and  food  for  the 
lambs;  (u)  Marketing  the  lambs;  (12)  Management  of 
the  dams  when  the  lambs  are  sold;  (13)  Disposing  of  the 
dams  to  be  sold;  (14)  Growing  milk  lambs  chiefly  from  . 
grazing;  and  (15)  The  room  for  the  industry. 

What  is  meant  by  a  milk  lamb — In  the  strictest  sense 
a  milk  lamb  is  one  that  is  sent  to  the  market  while  yet 
unweaned.  Any  lamb,  therefore,  that  is  sold  prior  to  the 
weaning  season  could  with  propriety  be  termed  a  milk 
lamb,  even  though  it  should  have  reached  the  age  of  18 
to  20  weeks.  But  that  is  not  the  sense  in  which  the 
term  is  usually  understood.  Strictly  speaking,  a  milk 
lamb  is  a  lamb  that  is  dropped  in  the  late  autumn  or  early 
winter  and  that  is  pushed  forward  by  forced  feeding  and 
sold  at  an  age  usually  not  more  than  10  weeks  from  the 
date  of  birth.  They  are  frequently  called  winter  lambs, 
from  the  season  during  which  they  are  usually  grown. 
They  are  also  known  as  hothouse  lambs  from  the  forcing 
and  pampering  to  which  they  are  subjected.  The  milk 
lamb  industry,  though  of  long  standing  in  Great  Britain, 
is  of  comparatively  recent  introduction  into  the  United 
States.  The  sale  of  such  lambs  as  happened  to  come 
early  when  not  more  than  two  to  three  months  old  has 


MILK  LAMBS:  HOW  TO  GET,  GROW  AND  MARKET    239 

been  commonly  practiced  for  many  years,  but  the  sys- 
tematic breeding  of  winter  lambs  does  not  go  back  much 
beyond  two  decades.  The  industry  has  almost  entirely 
grown  up  since  1890.  But  few  flocks  of  Dorsets  were 
owned  in  the  United  States  at  the  date  mentioned.  The 
very  considerable  distribution  of  Dorsets  since  that  time 
has  tended  much  to  the  advancement  of  the  milk  lamb 
industry. 

Essentials  in  a  milk  lamb — With  reference  to  growth 
in  a  milk  lamb,  it  must  be  rapid;  otherwise  it  will  not 
possess  the  requisite  tenderness  called  for  in  such  lambs, 
nor  would  it  reach  the  market  at  the  proper  season  except 
when  born  at  an  early  period  for  winter  lambs.  With 
reference  to  condition,  it  must  be  fat  and  plump;  other- 
wise it  will  not  grade  sufficiently  high  to  command  the 
good  prices  usually  paid  for  good  winter  lambs.  With 
reference  to  form,  it  should  possess  good  mutton  requi- 
sites with  correct  form.  The  breed  or  grade  is  not  greatly 
important.  It  may,  however,  have  some  significance,  as 
miniature  horns  in  Dorset  lambs  have  to  some  extent 
become  recognized  as  a  mark  of  a  true  milk  lamb.  With 
reference  to  weight,  it  should  seldom  exceed  45  pounds 
and  should  seldom  fall  below  35  pounds.  Providing  the 
lambs  have  sufficient  weight  and  plumpness,  the  age  will 
not  be  inquired  into,  but  the  growth  made  must  be  made 
rapidly,  or  the  lambs  will  not  be  possessed  of  sufficient 
plumpness  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  market  at  the  weights 
that  are  most  desirable.  These  lambs  should  reach  the 
market  while  under  the  age  of,  say,  10  weeks. 

The  time  for  marketing  milk  lambs  is  supremely  im- 
portant in  its  relation  to  the  business.  The  best  time  to 
market  them  is  subsequently  to  the  holiday  season  at  the 
end  of  the  year  and  before  the  Easter  season.  Before  the 
holiday  season  the  lambs  are  not  much  sought  for,  be- 
cause of  the  extent  to  which  poultry  is  used.  Subse- 
quently to  the  Easter  period  they  would  reach  the  mar- 
ket in  competition  with  early  lambs  not  specially  grown 


240 


MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF' SHEEP 


as  milk  lambs.  The  competition  from  the  poultry  in  the 
one  instance  and  the  early  lamb  in  the  other  would  tell 
adversely  on  prices.  Milk  lambs  should  not  be  dropped, 
therefore,  much  earlier  than  December  nor  much  later 
than  February.  The  high  price,  relatively,  paid  for  milk 
lambs  is  the  justification  for  breeding  them. 


FIG.   12— TYPICAL  DORSET  HORN  RAM 

The  property  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station 

(Courtesy  of  owner) 

How  to  obtain  milk  lambs — Milk  lambs  can  only  be 
obtained  from  a  limited  number  of  the  pure  breeds.  The 
Dorset  and  Tunis  breeds  are  the  only  pure  breeds  from 
which  milk  lambs  are  obtained  in  America  in  any  consid- 
erable numbers.  The  other  pure  breeds  usually  drop 
their  lambs  too  late  to  admit  of  growing  them  as  winter 
lambs.  Merinos,  in  many  instances,  will  produce  lambs 
early  in  the  season  if  allowed  to,  but  the  habit  of  breed- 
ing so  as  to  produce  lambs  in  the  early  winter  is  not  en- 


MILK   LAMBS:    HOW    TO   GET,   GROW    AND    MARKET      24! 

grafted  on  them  as  it  is  on  the  other  breeds  named. 
Among  the  Down  breeds  Hampshires  are  probably  the 
most  suitable.  But  milk  lambs  may  also  be  obtained 
from  grades,  though  not  until  the  breeding  habit  in  these 
has  been  so  modified  that  they  will  with  reasonable  cer- 
tainty produce  lambs  at  the  desired  season.  Such  lambs 
may  be  thus  obtained  from  grades  possessed  of  various 
blood  elements,  but  not  until  the  breeding  habit  is  modi- 
fied by  some  such  method  as  that  pointed  out  below, 
when  discussing  changing  the  breeding  habit. 

The  material  from  which  milk  lambs  may  be  obtained 
is  not  plentiful  as  yet.  Pure  Dorsets  and  pure  Tunis 
sheep  are  too  valuable  to  grow  milk  lambs  from  them. 
The  attempts  to  modify  the  breeding  habit  in  grades  are 
recent  and  by  no  means  general.  As  a  result,  the  material 
from  this  source  for  breeding  winter  lambs  is  not  plenti- 
ful. But  it  is  from  this  source  that  growers  of  pure  bred 
lambs  will  chiefly  obtain  the  ewes  that  will  furnish  the 
lambs. 

How  to  change  the  breeding  habit — The  tendency  in 
nearly  all  breeds  of  sheep  is  to  drop  their  lambs  in  the 
spring  rather  than  in  the  autumn  or  winter.  This  tend- 
ency or  breeding  habit  may  be  so  modified  that  ewes 
will  produce  lambs  at  any  season  that  may  be  desired ; 
one  or  two  methods  may  be  chosen  to  effect  such  change. 
By  the  first  it  is  brought  about  by  selection,  by  the  sec- 
ond through  breeding  and  selection.  The  second  method 
will  reach  the  desired  end  much  more  quickly  than  the  first. 

When  the  breeding  habit  is  changed  by  selection,  the 
ewes  that  breed  early  are  retained  for  such  breeding.  The 
progeny  of  these  are  also  saved  for  further  breeding. 
When  the  flock  is  well  sustained  by  nourishing  food,  the 
tendency  to  breed  still  earlier  is  encouraged.  In  time, 
therefore,  the  habit  in  breeding  may  be  changed  from 
one  season  to  another.  This  method  of  securing  change, 
however,  is  too  slow  in  itself  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
growers  of  milk  lambs. 


242  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

When  the  breeding  habit  is  changed  by  breeding  and 
selection  combined,  the  change  is  affected  in  great  part  by 
the  sires  chosen.  The  females  set  aside  for  such  breed- 
ing may  be  much  mixed  in  their  blood  elements.  In 
selecting  them  the  character  of  the  inheritance  need  not 
give  much  concern.  Evidence  of  Merino  inheritance 
should  be  regarded  with  favor,  as  it  will,  when  present, 
facilitate  to  some  extent  quick  change  in  the  breeding 
habit.  Some  attention  should  be  given  to  size  and  form 
when  selecting  them.  They  should  approximate  what  is 
considered  good  mutton  form  and  should  have  reasonably 
good  size.  Moreover,  they  should  have  that  roominess 
of  body  and  refinement  of  head,  neck  and  limb  that  indi- 
cate capacity  to  milk  freely. 

Ewes  thus  chosen  should  be  mated  with  rams  chosen 
from  the  Dorset  or  Tunis  breeds.  The  mating  should  be 
as  early  in  the  season  as  the  ewes  will  take  service,  and  it 
may  to  some  extent  be  hastened  by  giving  the  ewes  nour- 
ishing and  succulent  food.  A  certain  proportion  of  lambs 
will  thus  be  obtained  considerably  earlier  than  such  ewes 
have  been  accustomed  to  breed,  but  not  early  enough,  it 
may  be,  to  serve  as  milk  lambs.  The  females  that  are 
born  thus  early  should  be  reserved  for  further  breeding. 
They  should  in  due  time  be  mated  with  a  ram  of  the  same 
breed.  If  well  sustained,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
these  will  drop  lambs  in  the  early  winter.  The  males 
may  be  pushed  forward  and  sold  as  milk  lambs,  but  the 
females  should  be  retained  for  future  breeding.  If  well 
sustained,  a  very  large  proportion  of  these  ewes — that  is, 
ewes  of  the  second  cross — will  produce  winter  lambs. 
With  ewes  of  the  third  generation  of  such  breeding,  the 
habit  of  producing  winter  lambs  at  the  desired  season 
may  be  looked  upon  as  practically  established.  The  ewes 
that  do  not  show  much  advance  in  the  time  of  breeding 
can,  of  course,  be  discarded,  but  in  well-managed  flocks 
it  will  be  found  that  few  of  these  will  fail  to  breed  much 
earlier  than  the  usual  season  for  breeding. 


MILK  LAMBS:  HOW  TO  GET,  GROW  AND  MARKET     243 

Food  plays  an  important  part  in  hastening  or  retard- 
ing change  in  the  breeding  habit.  When  the  ewes  that 
have  produced  early  lambs  are  well  sustained  with  nour- 
ishing and  succulent  food  during  the  nursing  period,  they 
will  frequently  mate  soon  after  the  lambs  have  been 
weaned ;  hence  after  the  change  in  the  breeding  habit  has 
been  established,  the  ewes  will  sometimes  mate  so  as  to 
produce  lambs  earlier  than  is  desirable  if  allowed  to  do  so. 
When  the  lambs  are  sold  several  weeks  before  the  time 
for  grazing  begins,  the  ewes  will  mate  more  readily  be- 
fore being  turned  out  to  graze  than  for  some  time  sub- 
sequently, owing  probably  to  the  temporary  reduction  in 
flesh  which  usually  follows  the  beginning  of  the  grazing 
period.  To  insure  mating  sufficiently  early,  the  grazing 
should  be  nutritious,  and  along  with  it  some  supplemental 
grain  may  be  helpful  in  securing  sufficiently  early  breeding. 

Experience  in  Minnesota — To  throw  light  upon  this 
question,  the  author  instigated  a  series  of  experiments  at 
the  Minnesota  station  several  years  ago.  The  ewes 
selected  for  the  purpose  were  of  the  commonest  types 
that  could  be  secured.  A  considerable  proportion  were 
ewes  from  the  range,  such  as  are  exposed  for  sale  from 
time  to  time  in  the  stockyards.  The  blood  elements  pos- 
sessed by  them  were  various.  Judging  by  the  indications, 
the  blood  elements  of  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Oxford 
Down  and  Cotswold  breeds  were  more  or  less  present, 
and  the  evidences  of  Merino  blood  were  pronounced  in 
nearly  all  of  them.  In  some  instances  they  carried  folds 
and  even  wrinkles. 

The  males  used  were  pure  Dorsets  possessed  of  good 
mutton  form.  In  some  instances  the  sire  was  used  on  his 
own  progeny,  but  this  was  not  generally  practiced.  Later 
when  the  breeding  habit  had  been  modified  so  that  the 
ewes  could  be  expected  to  produce  lambs  at  the  required 
season,  pure  males  of  the  dark-faced  breeds  were  used  in 
service  to  a  limited  extent,  especially  those  of  the  South- 
down breed. 


244  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

During  the  summer  the  ewes  were  grazed  largely  on 
sown  pastures,  such  as  winter  rye,  rape,  peas  and  oats, 
cabbage,  and  even  sorghum,  along  with  a  limited  amount 
of  grass  pastures.  They  were  so  grazed  because  of  the 
absence  of  enough  of  grass  pasture.  When  the  grass 
pasture  was  entirely  lacking,  which  happened  in  some  in- 
stances, hay  was  fed.  In  winter  the  ewes  that  were  nurs- 
ing their  lambs  were  fed  hay  or  good  corn  fodder,  a  liberal 
supply  of  grain,  and  also  of  field  roots.  The  lambs  were 
also  encouraged  to  take  grain  and  roots  as  soon  as  they 
would  take  such  food.  It  was  found  that  some  of  the 
ewes  of  the  first  cross  produced  lambs  sufficiently  early. 
A  large  proportion  of  those  of  the  second  cross  or  gener- 
ation did  so,  while  those  of  the  third  generation  practi- 
cally all  produced  winter  lambs.  Only  a  small  per  cent 
of  the  ewes  were  discarded  because  of  breeding  too  late 
in  the  season.  Moreover,  it  was  found  that  some  of  the 
ewes  would  take  service  earlier  than  was  desired,  if  al- 
lowed to  do  so.  In  some  instances  lambs  were  produced 
in  October.  Some  of  these,  too  large  to  take  the  market 
as  milk  lambs  at  the  proper  season,  weighed  as  much  as 
80  to  90  pounds  when  sold  in  February.  It  was  also 
found  that  lambs  obtained  from  grade  Dorset  ewes  and 
dark-faced  sires,  especially  of  the  Southdown  breed,  were 
more  in  favor  with  the  dealers  than  those  from  Dorset  sires. 

Other  than  Dorset  sires — When  the  supply  of  dams 
becomes  sufficiently  numerous,  other  than  Dorset  sires 
may  be  used  should  this  be  desired.  The  advantage  from 
using  them  would  be  the  production  of  lambs  with  supe- 
rior mutton  form.  When  such  a  result  could  not  be 
looked  for  with  a  considerable  degree  of  confidence,  it 
should  not  be  attempted.  The  reference  thus  made  to  the 
use  of  other  sires  does  not  imply  that  the  Dorset  is  not 
possessed  of  good  mutton  form,  but  that  some  breeds  may 
be  somewhat  superior  to  them  in  this  respect.  Wrhen  no 
improvement  would  result  from  change  in  the  breed  from 
which  the  sires  are  chosen,  it  should  not  be  made. 


MILK  LAMBS:  HOW  TO  GET,  GROW  AND  MARKET    245 

For  such  production  pure  Southdown  sires  have  been 
found  the  most  suitable,  and  probably  next  to  these  the 
Shropshires.  Lambs  from  the  former  have  a  plumpness 
and  compactness  of  form  that  indicate  the  ideal  mutton 
form.  Moreover,  they  bear  a  refinement  of  bone  that  is 
closely  associated  with  good  killing  properties.  They 
also  have  a  tendency  to  mature  early,  which  insures  rapid 
growth  while  they  are  young. 

Such  breeding,  however,  would  probably  result  in 
bringing  about  some  reversion  of  the  early  breeding 
habit;  hence  it  would  seem  unwise  to  retain  the  females 
for  future  breeding.  There  would  also  be  some  decrease 
in  the  prolificacy  of  ewes  thus  begotten  and  some  lessen- 
ing of  the  capacity  for  milk  production.  These  sires, 
therefore,  should  only  be  used  when  dams  that  produce 
winter  lambs  are  plentiful,  or  when  it  is  not  desired  longer 
to  secure  from  them  ewes  to  be  retained  for  breeding. 

Where  milk  lambs  should  be  grown — Milk  lambs 
should  not  be  grown  except  where  all  the  facilities  exist 
for  making  the  work  at  least  reasonably  successful.  It 
should  not  be  attempted :  (i)  Where  the  facilities  for  mar- 
keting are  not  good ;  (2)  where  the  requisite  foods  cannot 
be  grown  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  success;  (3)  where 
the  place  of  consumption  is  far  distant  from  the  place  of 
production ;  and  (4)  where  the  demand  does  not  exist  for 
such  lambs. 

The  facilities  for  marketing  include  proximity  to  a 
railroad  station,  and  telegraph  or  telephone  communica- 
tions with  the  dealers  who  want  the  lambs.  Under  such 
conditions  only  can  orders  be  received  and  filled  with 
sufficient  promptness.  A  long  distance  from  the  place  of 
shipment  would  add  much  to  the  expense  of  the  same. 

While  it  is,  of  course,  allowable  to  purchase  the  grain 
or  a  part  of  it  when  growing  milk  lambs,  the  profit  will 
be  proportionately  greater  when  the  food  can  be  grown 
successfully  on  the  farm.  The  coarse  fodders  used,  being 
somewhat  special  in  character,  can  be  grown  in  a  more 


246  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

suitable  form  when  grown  at  home.  Succulent  food,  also, 
can  only  be  furnished  under  average  conditions  by  the 
farms  on  which  it  is  fed.  Such  food  plays  a  very  impor- 
tant part  in  the  feeding  of  milk  lambs. 

While  the  facilities  for  moving  food  products  quickly 
have  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  in  a 
country  as  large  as  the  United  States,  where  milk  lambs 
must  go  far  to  reach  the  market,  the  express  charges 
would  too  much  cut  in  upon  the  profits.  The  cost  of 
shipping  lambs,  for  instance,  to  New  York  city  that  are 
grown  within  100  miles  of  the  same  will  be  much  less 
than  when  they  are  grown  1,000  miles  distant. 

The  demand  for  milk  lambs  does  not  exist  in  all  parts 
of  the  country.  They  furnish  meat  only  for  the  wealthy ; 
hence  they  will  only  find  ready  sale  in  certain  centers. 
This,  of  course,  does  not  include  lambs  sold  locally  in  the 
spring  season  while  still  sucking  the  dams.  These  are  in 
demand  wherever  meat  is  in  demand,  but  they  do  not 
bring  such  prices  as  are  usually  paid  for  winter  lambs. 

Quarters  suitable  for  milk  lambs — In  northern  areas 
the  quarters  for  milk  lambs  should  be  reasonably  warm. 
While  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  have  a  barn  built 
on  the  basement  plan  in  which  to  keep  them,  such  a  barn 
is  very  suitable  for  the  work.  It  should  not,  however,  be 
dark  or  damp,  such  as  barns  are  in  some  instances  that 
are  built  close  against  or  into  a  bank.  A  bright  apart- 
ment of  a  basement  is  a  good  place  to  have  the  young 
lambs  come  into  life.  Under  such  conditions  the  risk  to 
the  young  lambs  is  not  great,  though  the  thermometer 
without  should  register  30  degrees  and  even  more  below 
zero.  In  the  absence  of  apartments  in  a  basement  a  lamb- 
ing pen  should  be  partitioned  off  in  the  sheep  house,  the 
sheeting  or  lining  of  which  would  make  it  warm  enough 
to  answer  the  purpose.  This  will  usually  be  accomplished 
by  lining  the  studs  inclosing  the  pen  with  sheeting  of 
boards  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  studs,  and  using  the 
paper  under  the  sheeting  at  least  on  one  side. 


MILK  LAMBS:  HOW  TO  GET,  GROW  AND  MARKET    247 

It  is  entirely  practicable  to  keep  the  dams,  and  also 
the  lambs,  in  a  well-ventilated  basement  during  the  entire 
period  covered  in  the  life  of  the  lambs.  This  may  be  done 
with  entire  safety  to  the  lambs  and  also  to  the  dams,  as 
the  period  covered  by  such  feeding  does  not  in  many  in- 
stances exceed  three  months.  The  even  and  reasonably 
warm  temperature  of  such  shelter  is  favorable  to  econom- 
ical development  in  the  lambs.  They  may  be  reared, 
however,  without  hazard  in  ordinary  sheep  sheds  if  the 
lambing  pens  are  warm.  But  when  reared  in  such  sheds 
access  to  a  sunny  yard  in  mild  weather  will  doubtless 
prove  beneficial. 

In  latitudes  milder  than  those  of  the  northern  states, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  have  sheds  so  warm,  and  the  neces- 
sity grows  less  as  the  average  temperature  rises.  In  the 
far  South  shelter  that  would  protect  from  cold  wind  and 
rain  would  probably  prove  ample. 

Food  and  care  for  the  dams — Before  the  lambs  come, 
grading  the  dams  is  seldom  a  necessity.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary in  some  instances,  however,  to  separate  aged  ewes 
and  any  that  may  be  lean  for  more  liberal  feeding.  Sub- 
sequently to  the  lambing,  however,  grading  may  be  ad- 
vantageous. The  needs  of  both  ewes  and  lambs  may 
call  for  this,  as  the  ewes  are  not  equally  capable  of  taking 
forcing  food  at  the  stages  of  the  suckling  period,  and  the 
same  is  true  in  even  greater  degree  of  the  lambs.  The 
ewes  that  produce  lambs  for  replenishing  the  flock  should 
also  be  separated  from  the  others  at  the  time  of  lambing, 
and  should  be  fed  apart  from  them,  as  forced  feeding  such  as 
is  given  to  the  others  is  not  good  for  them  or  for  their  lambs. 

After  the  ewes  have  lambs,  the  fodders  best  adapted 
to  such  feeding  are  those  that  are  largely  nitrogenous  in 
their  composition,  fine  in  the  character  of  the  growth  and 
cured  so  the  fodders  are  appetizing.  Alfalfa  cut  as  soon 
as  the  first  blooms  show,  clovers  cut  in  early  bloom  and 
Canada  field  peas  and  oats  enough  to  sustain  the  crop 
while  growing  are  excellent.  Finely  grown  corn  and 


248  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

sorghum  are  good,  but  not  as  good  as  the  former.  Of  the 
clovers,  alsike  is  the  most  suitable,  being  of  fine  growth. 
In  the  central  states  and  southward,  cowpea  hay  will  be 
in  order,  in  addition  to  other  fodders  that  may  be  grown. 
They  may  be  allowed  to  pick  over  straw  used  for  bedding, 
but  should  not  be  expected  to  eat  much  of  it. 

The  succulence  fed  must  consist  mainly  of  field  roots 
or  corn  silage,  save  in  localities  so  mild  that  grazing 
is  practicable  to  some  extent.  Before  the  ewes  produce 
lambs,  and  for  a  few  days  subsequently,  the  ewes  should 
not  be  given  more  succulence  than  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  digestion  in  tone.  An  excess  of  succulent  food  at  such 
a  time  may  so  stimulate  milk  formation  as  to  lead  to  an 
inflamed  condition  of  the  udder  and  possibly  to  other 
evils.  But  after  the  lambs  have  become  able  to  take  all 
the  milk,  the  dams  may  be  fed  field  roots  practically  up 
to  their  capacity  to  consume  them.  No  food  can  be  given 
to  the  ewes  that  will  tend  more  to  stimulate  the  milk 
flow.  Corn  silage  furnishes  good  succulence,  and  in  the 
absence  of  field  roots  should  be  fed  to  the  extent  of  3  to 
4  pounds  a  day  when  it  can  be  had  and  when  it  is  of  good 
quality.  It  may  be  somewhat  hazardous,  however,  to 
feed  it  up  to  the  capacity  of  the  sheep  to  consume  it,  as 
it  is  not  so  safe  a  food  as  field  roots.  Far  South  various 
kinds  of  grazing  may  be  accessible  in  the  fields  during  a 
portion  of  the  time  in  the  form  of  rape,  the  sand  vetch, 
winter  oats  and  even  cabbage.  During  intervals  when 
grazing  would  be  imprudent  these  could  be  fed  as  a  soil- 
ing food. 

The  most  suitable  concentrates,  without  regard  to 
cost,  are  those  that  will  best  maintain  the  milk  flow  for 
the  young  lambs,  and  that  will  at  the  same  time  prevent 
undue  emaciation  in  the  dams.  These  will  include,  or 
may  include,  all  the  leading  cereals  grown,  but  blended  with  a 
view  to  make  a  milk-producing  ration.  Usually  wheat 
bran  will  be  given  considerable  prominence  in  the  mix- 
ture. The  unground  grain  will  most  frequently  include 


MILK  LAMBS:  HOW  TO  GET,  GROW  AND  MARKET    249 

oats  or  barley  and  corn,  because  they  are  grown  to  a 
greater  extent  than  other  grains.  Where  the  prices  will 
admit  of  such  feeding,  the  following  is  an  excellent  mix- 
ture :  25  to  30  per  cent  wheat  bran,  33  oats,  peas  or  bar- 
ley, 36  corn  and  the  balance  oilcake  or  cottonseed  meal. 
Some  grain  may  be  fed  before  the  ewes  produce  lambs, 
but  if  so  it  must  be  fed  with  much  moderation.  After  the 
lambs  are  several  days  old,  it  may  be  fed  almost  up  to  the 
limit  of  the  capacity  of  the  ewes  to  consume  the  food 
with  a  relish.  When  the  ewes  are  to  be  sold  for  meat 
soon  after  the  lambs  have  been  marketed,  the  corn  should 
be  considerably  increased  in  the  grain  ration. 

Care  and  food  for  the  lambs — Milk  lambs  may  be 
grown  when  exposed  to  temperatures  that  are  cool  or 
even  cold,  after  they  have  reached  the  age  of  two  or  three 
days,  but  the  fact  should  not  be  forgotten  that  thus  ex- 
posed they  will  not  grow  so  quickly  as  when  in  warmer 
quarters,  and  the  food  consumption  will  be  relatively 
greater.  Because  of  this  growers  of  milk  lambs  in  the 
North  prefer  keeping  them  reasonably  warm,  even  to  the 
extent,  in  some  instances,  of  keeping  them  and  the  dams 
inside  all  the  while. 

The  exercise  called  for  is  not  usually  so  much  for 
milk  lambs  as  for  lambs  grown  for  breeding.  Too  much 
exercise  which  they  are  likely  to  take  when  they  are  given 
unlimited  range,  would  retard  fattening,  though  favor- 
able to  muscle  development.  Too  little  exercise  may  re- 
sult in  more  or  less  of  paralysis  in  the  limbs  of  the  fattest 
lambs.  Usually  they  will  take  enough  of  exercise  when 
they  are  given  a  reasonable  amount  of  room,  and  espe- 
cially when  they  may  have  access  to  a  yard  on  fine  days 
an  hour  or  two  daily. 

As  soon  as  the  lambs  can  be  induced  to  eat,  they 
should  be  fed  meal,  and  later  grain,  apart  from  the  ewes. 
Such  food  as  ground  oats,  wheat  middlings  and  oil  meal 
are  suitable  at  the  first  and  better  in  some  sort  of  com- 
bination than  when  fed  alone.  A  little  sugar  sprinkled 


250  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

over  the  food  encourages  them  to  begin  eating.  After 
some  of  the  older  ones  have  begun  to  eat,  the  younger 
lambs  will  learn  from  them.  After  they  have  begun  to 
take  food  freely,  any  one  of  the  following  rations  should 
give  good  results:  (i)  Bran,  oats,  cracked  corn  and  oil- 
cake in  the  proportions  of,  say,  three  and  two  parts  re- 
spectively by  weight;  (2)  cracked  corn,  ground  barley, 
oats  and  oilcake  in  the  proportions  of  three,  four  and 
three  parts ;  (3)  wheat  and  oats  unground  in  about  equal 
parts.  Various  other  grain  mixtures  will  also  answer.  As 
the  ages  of  the  lambs  increase  the  proportion  of  the  corn 
fed  should  increase.  The  meal  or  grain  fed  should  be  re- 
moved each  time  before  more  is  added,  if  any  is  left  over. 
As  soon  as  the  young  lambs  will  eat  freely  they  should  be 
fed  meal  and  other  food  three  times  a  day.  They  will  not 
eat  much  fodder  if  fed  meal  thus  freely,  but  fine  clover, 
preferably  alsike,  will  prove  helpful  when  made  accessi- 
ble to  them.  But  they  will  make  an  excellent  use  of  roots 
pulped  or  dried  in  fine  strips,  such  as  can  be  obtained  from 
certain  kinds  of  root  slicers. 

The  food  must  be  fed  to  the  lambs  when  it  is  inac- 
cessible to  the  dams,  and  when  the  lambs  have  access  to 
it  at  will.  A  creep  made  in  a  corner  of  the  pen  in  which 
the  lambs  are  kept,  will  usually  answer  the  purpose  best. 

Marketing  the  lambs — The  aim  should  be  to  secure 
a  market  for  the  lambs  before  any  are  ready  for  ship- 
ment. Those  who  live  sufficiently  near  the  consumer  can, 
of  course,  deliver  the  lambs  dressed  as  needed,  but  when 
not  so  situated  it  will  be  necessary  to  ship  them  to  a  dealer 
as  ordered.  Under  such  conditions  of  disposal,  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  the  lambing  season  cover  a  consider- 
able period  will  be  apparent.  Should  the  supply  be  greater 
than  the  demand,  the  surplus  lambs  should  be  put  upon 
the  general  market,  as  they  will  usually  sell  for  more  at 
such  a  time  than  they  will  bring  if  carried  over  until  the 
following  autumn. 

The  necessity  for  filling  the  orders  with  all  reason- 


MILK  LAMBS:  HOW  TO  GET,  GROW  AND  MARKET    251 

able  promptness  will  be  at  once  apparent.  This  fact 
should  be  taken  into  account  by  those  who  grow 
milk  lambs  when  they  enter  upon  the  work.  The  con- 
sumers of  milk  lambs  are  buying  a  fancy  article  for  which 
they  are  paying  a  fancy  price,  hence  any  lack  of  prompt- 
ness in  filling  their  orders  may  result  in  the  loss  of  that 
particular  market. 

Whether  the  lambs  shall  be  shipped  alive  or  dead 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  distance  to  be  covered  while 
in  transit.  Lambs  that  are  delivered  by  conveyance  may 
be  delivered  alive  if  sold  to  a  dealer,  or  dead  if  sold  to  the 
consumer.  Lambs  sent  by  rail  are  usually  sent  dead  after 
the  stomach  and  its  appendages  have  been  removed,  but 
such  removal  does  not  always  include  the  heart,  liver  or 
lungs.  In  some  instances  the  skins  are  not  removed  but 
more  commonly  they  are. 

The  methods  followed  in  dressing  the  lambs  are  not 
uniform,  but  the  following  is  submitted  as  a  method  that 
may  be  safely  followed :  The  lamb  is  bled  by  making  a 
small  opening,  frequently  in  the  left  side  of  the  neck,  just 
back  of  the  head,  and  in  front  of  the  neck  bones.  The 
blade  of  the  knife  should  cut  the  large  artery  found  there. 
The  stomach  and  entrails  are  then  removed  without  dis- 
turbing the  liver,  lungs  or  heart.  Two  spreaders  are  then 
inserted  so  as  to  cross  each  other  at  right  angles  when  in 
place.  These  are  pointed  and  have  shoulders,  and  one 
end  of  each  is  inserted  in  the  outer  side  of  the  hind  flank, 
the  other  end  entering  the  opposite  side  of  the  lamb  near 
the  chest.  The  caul  fat  is  then  spread  so  as  to  cover  all 
the  meat  not  covered  with  the  skin,  and  is  held  in  place 
by  skewers  at  the  thighs  and  at  the  point  of  the  spreaders. 
As  soon  as  the  animal  heat  is  all  given  off  the  carcass  is 
wrapped  in  strong  paper  put  oh  tightly  and  it  is  then 
further  inclosed  in  burlap  or  sacking.  Such  lambs  dressed 
have  sometimes  been  shipped  in  light  boxes  just  large 
enough  to  admit  of  slipping  the  carcass  into  them  from 
the  end. 


252  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

The  dams  after  weaning — Whether  the  dams  are  sold 
after  the  lambs  are  weaned  or  retained  for  future  breed- 
ing, the  grain  food  should  be  at  once  reduced  in  quantity, 
and  the  succulent  food  should  be  almost  entirely  withheld. 
The  object  is  to  reduce  the  milk  flow.  It  might  not  be 
quite  safe  to  withhold  all  the  grain  and  succulent  food  at 
once,  on  the  principle  that  sudden  changes  of  diet  are 
frequently  hurtful.  In  the  case  of  ewes  that  are  to  be 
sold,  it  would  certainly  be  a  mistake  to  reduce  the  grain 
food  to  a  low  limit,  as  it  is  important  that  these  ewes  shall 
not  lose  flesh.  Under  such  feeding  it  might  take  a  longer 
time  to  dry  off  the  ewes,  but  even  so  the  extra  attention 
thus  called  for  is  a  trifling  expense  compared  with  allow- 
ing the  ewes  to  lose  flesh. 

In  some  instances  the  lambs  are  allowed  to  take  milk 
from  the  ewes  whose  lambs  have  been  sold,  in  addition 
to  that  furnished  by  their  mothers.  In  this  way  lambs 
not  sufficiently  rounded  out  may  soon  be  made  ready  for 
market.  To  accomplish  this,  however,  usually  involves 
holding  the  ewes  two  or  three  times  a  day  while  the  lambs 
take  the  food  thus  furnished.  The  shepherd  must  be  the 
judge  of  the  instances  in  which  this  method  will  prove 
profitable. 

Much  attention  must  be  given  to  the  udders  when  the 
lambs  are  being  sold.  The  dams  have  been  under  high 
pressure  feeding  and  have  not  gone  far  beyond  the  time 
of  greatest  milk  production  during  the  lactation  period ; 
hence  drying  them  off  is  a  very  different  matter  from  the 
drying  of  ewes  that  have  nursed  their  lambs  for  the  full 
lactation  period.  The  udders  should  be  examined  daily 
for  a  number  of  days,  and  should  be  relieved  of  a  part 
of  the  milk  as  frequently  as  may  be  found  necessary. 

The  lambs  to  be  retained  should  be  given  only  such 
food  as  will  maintain  them  in  a  moderate  condition  as  to 
flesh  until  they  are  turned  onto  the  grazing,  except  when 
it  is  desired  to  have  them  breed  again  as  soon  as  this 
can  be  brought  about.  Should  that  be  desired,  stimulat- 


MILK  LAMBS:  now  TO  GET,  GROW  AND  MARKET    253 

ing  food  should  be  fed.  Such  feeding  would  only  be 
necessary  when  two  crops  of  lambs  are  desired  in  one 
year,  which  under  conditions  such  as  are  found  in  north- 
ern areas  is  not  desirable,  as  the  tax  is  so  severe  upon  the 
breeding  powers  of  dams  that  ere  long  it  would  result  in 
deterioration. 

Disposing  of  the  dams — When  the  dams  are  to  be 
sold  soon  after  the  sale  of  the  lambs,  they  must  be  given 
freely  such  food  as  will  fatten  them  quickly.  When  thus 
fattened  they  will  sell  for  a  better  price  than  could  be  ob- 
tained for  them  if  sold  later,  as  the  competition  in  mut- 
ton in  the  market  is  less  severe  in  the  spring  season  when 
such  ewes  may  reach  the  market  than  it  would  be  later. 

For  some  time  previous  to  the  selling  of  the  lambs, 
these  ewes  should  be  fed  more  grain  that  is  fattening  in 
its  nature,  as  corn,  than  would  be  necessary  for  ewes  that 
are  to  be  retained  for  breeding,  but  this  food  should  not 
be  fed  to  them  to  the  extent  of  hindering  free  milk  pro- 
duction for  the  sustenance  of  the  lambs. 

As  soon  as  the  ewes  that  are  to  be  sold  are  dried  off 
they  should  be  pushed,  so  to  speak,  for  the  block.  They 
can  stand  such  high  feeding  for  a  time,  as  they  have,  in 
a  manner,  been  accustomed  to  it  before  the  lambs  were 
weaned.  Corn  will  furnish  the  cheapest  concentrate  for 
such  fattening  in  corn-growing  areas ;  but,  of  course, 
other  food,  as  oats  or  wheat  bran,  should  be  fed  along  with 
it.  Ewes  may  be  finished  more  quickly  before  than  after 
the  turning  out  season,  because  of  the  temporary  loss  of 
weight  that  usually  follows  turning  animals  out  on  grass, 
but  it  may  under  some  conditions  be  more  costly  than  fin- 
ishing on  grass. 

Growing  milk  lambs  from  grazing — The  areas 
adapted  to  growing  milk  lambs  chiefly  from  grazing  are 
somewhat  limited  in  the  United  States,  and  they  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  exist  at  all  in  Canada.  They  are  con- 
fined to  portions  of  the  Gulf  States  and  to  limited  areas 
along  the  Pacific  coast,  but  in  states  further  north  than 


254  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

those  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  grazing  may  be  furnished 
much  later  and  earlier  than  further  north. 

Prominent  among  the  foods  that  may  be  grown  for 
such  fattening  are  rape,  kale  and  cabbage.  Such  foods 
also  as  winter  oats,  winter  rye,  crimson  clover  and  vetches 
may  be  utilized  more  or  less.  These  crops  would  be 
grazed  in  part  and  in  part  used  as  soiling  food,  as  in  ad- 
verse weather  they  should  not  be  grazed.  The  condition 
of  the  ground  may  also  make  grazing  impracticable  in 
very  wet  weather. 

While  being  grazed  the  ewes  and  lambs  will  fare  bet- 
ter if  they  may  have  access  to  a  grass  pasture.  Where 
this  is  not  obtainable  they  should  be  given  fodder  in  the 
cured  form.  The  effect  upon  the  digestion  will  be  favor- 
able. More  or  less  grain  will  be  helpful  to  both  ewes  and 
lambs,  but  especially  when  they  can  feed  largely  on  rape, 
kale  or  cabbage  that  is  well  headed.  The  amount  of  grain 
called  for  is  much  less  than  when  the  ewes  are  confined 
and  fed  chiefly  on  dry  food. 

There  may  be  instances  in  which  it  may  be  desirable 
to  cut  the  green  food  and  to  feed  it  to  the  flock  on  the 
soiling  plan.  By  this  method  the  food  may  be  made  ac- 
cessible to  the  sheep  with  more  uniformity  than  when 
they  are  grazed.  They  will  be  less  exposed  in  bad  weather 
and  less  food  will  be  wasted,  but,  of  course,  more  labor  is 
involved.  In  the  absence  of  experience  in  growing  lambs 
thus  the  method  that  will  certainly  prove  the  most  profit- 
able cannot  be  given. 

The  room  for  the  industry — That  the  room  for  the 
industry  as  conducted  at  present  is  not  unlimited  will  be 
very  evident  when  it  is  remembered  that  winter  lamb  sold 
at  the  prices  which  now  prevail  is,  in  a  sense,  a  luxury. 
But  that  it  may  be  greatly  extended  cannot  be  doubted. 
In  many  important  centers  it  is  not  known  at  present,  as 
it  has  never  been  introduced  into  these.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  only  used  in  but  few  of  the  metropolitan  cities 
of  the  republic. 


MILK  LAMBS:  HOW  TO  GET,  GROW  AND  MARKET    255 

The  factors  that  develop  consumption  are :  The  pro- 
duction of  the  lambs,  the  knowledge  that  they  are  being 
produced,  and  in  proximity  or  reasonable  proximity  to  a 
center  of  wealth.  Winter  lambs,  therefore,  will  find  a 
market  in  small  centers  of  population  at  the  rate  of,  say, 
$8  to  $10  for  a  lamb  that  weighs  from  35  to  45  pounds. 
But  it  should  be  possible  to  grow  lambs  in  winter  so  as 
to  put  them  on  the  market  at  prices  considerably  lower 
than  those  named.  Should  that  be  done,  the  market  for 
them  would  be  unlimited. 

Of  course,  the  growing  of  summer  lambs  will  always 
have  an  important  place,  but  under  certain  conditions  it 
may  prove  more  profitable  to  grow  winter  lambs,  even 
though  sold  at  not  more  than  $4  to  $5  per  animal.  The 
following  are  among  the  advantages  that  may  accrue 
from  growing  them:  (i)  The  work  is  done  at  a  season 
when  field  work  is  not  pressing.  (2)  The  lambs  being 
grown  in  winter  are  but  little  subject  to  parasitic  dis- 
eases, that  so  frequently  prey  upon  lambs  in  summer. 
(3)  The  price  obtained  is  much  more  per  pound  than  that 
given  for  summer  lambs.  In  the  southern  states  lambs 
should  grow  better  in  winter  than  in  summer,  as  they 
are  not  exposed  to  the  prolonged  heat  of  the  summer 
season. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

GROWING  AND  FITTING  SHEEP  FOR 
EXHIBITION 

In  Chapter  XIII  the  growing  and  fitting  of  sheep  for 
exhibition  is  discussed  under  the  following  subheads : 
(i)  The  sources  from  which  pure  breds  are  obtained;  (2) 
The  sources  from  which  grades  and  cross  breds  are  ob- 
tained ;  (3)  The  quarters  for  the  ewes  and  lambs ;  (4) 
Food  for  the  dams  while  nursing  in  sheds ;  (5)  Feed- 
ing and  caring  for  the  lambs  until  weaned ;  (6)  Grazing 
for  the  dams  before  the  time  of  weaning;  (7)  The  lambs 
subsequently  to  weaning;  (8)  Trimming  the  wool  for  the 
fairs;  (9)  Washing  and  smearing  sheep  for  shows;  (10) 
Special  treatment  for  Merino  sheep;  (n)  Show  sheep  in 
transit  to  the  fairs  ;  (12)  Management  subsequently  to  the 
fair  season;  (13)  The  exercise  that  is  required;  (14)  Ex- 
cessive fatness  to  be  avoided;  (15)  The  age  to  which 
sheep  may  be  shown;  and  (16)  Miscellaneous  observa- 
tions on  showing  sheep. 

Sources  from  which  pure  breds  come — As  a  rule  the 
leading  exhibitors  of  pure-bred  sheep  in  Great  Britain 
grow  the  animals  which  they  exhibit.  In  the  United 
States  and  Canada  this  method  is  reversed  by  many 
breeders.  They  import  from  the  flocks  of  Britain  many 
of  the  sheep  which  they  show.  This  does  not  apply 
equally  to  all  breeds,  as  the  American  and  Delaine  Me- 
rino are  in  all  instances  home  grown,  and  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances it  is  true  of  the  Rambouillets.  This  superiority 
of  the  mutton  breeds  of  sheep  in  Britain  is  owing  in  part 
to  the  temperate  and  moist  climate  of  that  country,  so 
favorable  to  the  abundant  growth  of  those  succulent  foods 
that  are  so  helpful  in  forcing  early  growth,  but  it  is  only 
fair  to  concede  that  it  is  owing  in  part  to  the  genius  of 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR  EXHIBITION        257 

the  breeders  in  evolving  superior  types  and  to  the  skill 
and  fidelity  shown  by  the  shepherds  in  caring  for  the 
sheep.  In  some  flocks,  however,  many  of  the  pure-bred 
sheep  shown  even  at  the  largest  fairs  are  bred  at  home. 
Whether  the  time  will  come  when  prize-winning  sheep  at 
the  leading  fairs  shall  be  grown  rather  than  imported,  is  a 
question  on  which  opinions  differ.  The  solution  must 
come  from  the  genius  of  our  people,  for  in  some  portions 
of  the  United  States  the  conditions  are  very  similar  to 
those  found  in  Great  Britain. 

The  leading  characteristics  to  be  sought  in  pure  breds 
that  are  to  be  shown  are  those  which  belong  to  the  vari- 
ous pure  breeds,  as  indicated  by  the  standards  which  be- 
long to  these.  It  is  absolutely  essential  that  the  breed 
characteristics  shall  be  present,  including  in  fair  degree 
even  points  that  are  regarded  as  fancy,  because  of  the 
extent  to  which  these  influence  the  awards  of  many 
judges.  The  characteristics  as  to  form  and  size  are  rela- 
tively the  most  important,  but  those  that  relate  to  wool 
are  also  important.  It  should  be  carefully  examined  with 
reference  to  density,  length,  texture  and  all  other  quali- 
ties, and  also  with  reference  to  its  even  distribution  over 
the  body.  The  shades  of  color  in  head  and  legs  all  have 
a  bearing  on  the  awards,  and  the  same  is  true  of  a  rosy 
and  pink  skin.  In  the  males  much  stress  should  be  laid 
upon  the  evidences  of  masculinity,  and  in  the  females  on 
those  of  femininity.  Prominent  among  the  former  are 
compactness,  strong  head,  neck  and  breast  development, 
and  strong  but  not  coarse  limbs.  Prominent  among  the 
latter  are  refinement  of  head,  neck  and  limbs,  and  a  suffi- 
ciency of  length  of  body.  When  selecting  sheep  to  be 
mated  with  a  view  to  rear  show  animals  from  them,  much 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  record  of  performance  in 
the  near  ancestry  when  such  information  is  obtainable. 

Sources  from  which  grades  and  crossbreds  come — 
Grade  and  cross-bred  sheep  shown  at  fairs  are  almost  en- 
tirely grown  on  the  farms  of  those  who  exhibit  them ; 


u 

o 

on  >-. 

<  £ 

X  « 

u  g 


258 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR  EXHIBITION        259 

hence  in  the  exhibits  of  these  the  skill  of  the  breeder  is 
more  clearly  demonstrated  than  in  many  of  the  exhibits 
of  pure  breds.  In  but  rare  instances  do  professional  show 
men  buy  a  pen  of  grades  or  crossbreds  and  with  them 
make  the  rounds  of  the  leading  fairs,  as  they  do  frequently 
with  pure  breds. 

When  grown  by  the  exhibitor,  they  may  be  one  of  several 
grades  and  crosses.  The  foundation  females  should  be 
ewes  of  fairly  good  form,  not  less  than  medium  in  size  for 
the  grade,  and  possessed  of  that  structure  which  indi- 
cates good  milk-giving  properties.  They  should  possess 
much  inherent  ruggedness ;  hence  ewes  much,  mixed  in 
breeding,  even  such  as  come  from  the  range,  may  answer 
the  purpose  well.  Though  decided  indications  of  Merino 
blood  are  present,  they  are  not  to  be  rejected  on  that  ac- 
count. Such  ewes  may  be  variously  crossed  upon,  but  no 
cross  will  serve  the  purpose  better,  as  a  rule,  than  one  of 
Shropshire  or  Southdown  blood.  In  the  experience  of  the 
author,  excellent  lambs  for  exhibition  purposes  were  pro- 
duced from  ewes  mated  with  a  Southdown  ram  that  were 
the  offspring  of  such  ewes  as  have  just  been  referred  to, 
mated  with  a  Shropshire  ram.  Lambs  thus  bred  at  the 
Minnesota  Station  in  1901  were  given  first  place  at  the 
Chicago  International,  when  showing  against  the  world. 
In  some  instances  it  was  found  that  lambs  of  the  first 
generation  answered  for  such  breeding,  but  more  com- 
monly those  of  the  second  generation  were  even  more 
suitable,  and  in  some  instances  further  grading  gave  even 
better  results. 

The  rams  chosen  for  mating  with  such  females 
should  possess  medium  size  for  the  breed,  fleshing  prop- 
erties of  a  high  order  and  of  proved  prepotency  where  it 
is  found  possible  to  obtain  such  evidence.  Should  rams 
unusually  large  for  the  breed  be  chosen,  the  danger  is 
present  that  something  of  coarseness  and  too  much 
strength  of  limb  may  be  transmitted  to  the  progeny.  In 
the  leading  fat  stock  fairs  of  Great  Britain,  the  progeny  of 


200  MANAGEMENT  AND    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

Hampshire  and  Oxford  Down  sires  have  been  the  more 
frequent  prize  winners,  but  in  those  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  the  honors  have  come  more  frequently  to  the 
progeny  of  Shropshire  and  Southdown  sires. 

The  style  of  carcass  wanted  is  influenced  by  form, 
size,  symmetry,  bone  and  breed  or  grade.  The  cylindri- 
cal and  compact  form,  with  much  of  width,  depth  and 
roundness,  and  accompanied  by  firmness  of  back,  is  the 
most  suitable.  An  animal  of  medium  size  and  much 
symmetry,  that  is  of  correct  correlation  in  the  different 
parts,  is  in  every  way  to  be  preferred  to  one  of  more  size 
and  less  of  symmetry.  Bone  even  less  than  medium  for 
the  breed  or  grade  is  preferred  to  bone  that  is  larger. 
While  good  specimens  may  be  found  in  all  the  mutton 
breeds  and  their  grades,  those  that  conform  most  nearly 
to  the  Southdown  type  stand  the  best  chance  of  winning. 

Quarters  for  the  ewes  and  lambs — To  grow  sheep  or 
lambs  for  exhibition  does  not  call  for  quarters  elaborate 
or  costly.  In  the  quarters  furnished  it  is  only  necessary 
to  make  provision  for  shelter  from  drafts,  from  storms, 
from  excessive  sunshine  and  for  taking  food  and  exer- 
cise. Exposure  to  drafts  in  the  sheds,  hurtful  to  any 
class  of  sheep,  would  so  retard  progress  in  show  animals 
as  to  defeat  the  object  for  which  they  are  kept.  Protec- 
tion from  storms  includes  protection  from  rain,  sleet, 
snow  and  strong  or  harsh  winds.  Hot  sunshine  will  in- 
jure show  sheep  more  than  others,  since  they  carry  more 
fat  and  the  greater  the  exposure  to  hot  sunshine,  the  more 
is  the  annoyance  at  the  same  time,  as  a  rule,  from  flies. 
The  quarters  for  such  sheep  should  be  large  enough  to 
prevent  all  crowding  and  the  trough  room  should  be 
ample.  It  is  also  indispensable  that  the  sheep  shall  be 
given  opportunity  to  exercise  freely,  or  the  flesh  which 
they  carry  will  not  be  sufficiently  firm. 

While  the  dams  are  nursing  their  young  they  are 
simply  kept  in  an  apartment  separate  from  other  sheep. 
This  is  necessary  in  order  to  furnish  them  with  such  foods 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR   EXHIBITION        26l 

as  they  should  have,  as  the  aim  is  at  such  a  time  to  force 
milk  production  to  the  limit.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to 
keep  them  separate  from  the  other  members  of  the  flock 
previously  to  the  lambing  season,  under  proper  conditions 
of  management.  In  addition  to  roomy  quarters  they 
should,  of  course,  have  much  freedom  of  access  to  a  yard 
adjacent.  Later  they  should  have  access  to  suitable  graz- 
ing, but  only  at  stated  times,  as  shown  below.  Where 
grading  cannot  be  furnished,  green  food  should  be  fed 
to  them  in  paddocks. 

The  quarters  for  the  dams  will  also  be  suitable  for 
the  lambs  up  to  the  weaning  season.  But  in  addition 
it  is  imperative  that  the  lambs  are  given  a  protected 
place  where  they  can  take  a  portion  of  their  food  apart 
from  the  dams.  Such  a  place  may  usually  be  furnished 
within  the  apartment  in  which  the  dams  are  fed  (see 
page  260). 

When  the  lambs  are  weaned,  they  may  be  kept  dur- 
ing the  heat  of  the  day  in  the  same  apartment  that  the 
dams  have  vacated,  but  at  other  times  should  have  access 
to  a  yard,  a  paddock  or  to  an  adjacent  pasture.  The  sheds 
must  be  darkened  during  the  day  by  covering  the  open 
windows  with  sacking  or  some  such  material  as  will  keep 
out  flies  and  will,  at  the  same  time,  provide  ample  ventila- 
tion. 

The  quarters  suitable  for  shearlings  in  summer  are 
limited  to  those  just  described  as  suitable  for  lambs.  In 
winter  they  want  a  reasonably  roomy,  bright  and  airy 
space  free  from  drafts  and  adjacent  to  a  yard.  They  must 
be  kept  apart  from  other  sheep  in  order  that  they  may  be 
given  proper  and  suitable  food. 

Food  for  the  dams  while  nursing  in  sheds — The  fod- 
ders fed  to  the  dams  must  be  of  high  quality  and  such  as 
are  favorable  to  milk  production.  Alfalfa  and  clover  stand 
at  the  head  of  the  list  in  suitability  for  such  feeding,  but 
peas  and  oats  and  vetches  and  oats  of  fine  growth  are  ex- 
cellent. The  alfalfa  should  be  cut  at  first  bloom,  and  the 


262  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

clovers  in  early  bloom,  and  the  peas  and  oats  or  vetches 
and  oats  a  little  short  of  maturity.  Millet  of  fine  growth 
and  leafy,  cut  when  the  heads  are  beginning  to  tint,  is 
good.  The  same  is  true  of  fodder  corn,  bright  and  leafy, 
of  fine  growth  and  cut  a  little  short  of  full  maturity. 
Feeding  fodders  in  variety  is  helpful  to  sheep  of  all  grades, 
and  it  is  especially  so  to  ewes  that  are  being  forced,  as  it 
were,  to  provide  milk  for  their  lambs.  Such  fodder  may 
be  given  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  if  any  is  left  over, 
it  should  be  carefully  removed  before  furnishing  the  next 
feed. 

In  no  form  can  succulence  be  given  so  safely  or  so 
beneficially  to  such  ewes  when  on  dry  food  as  in  the  form 
of  field  roots.  While  any  kind  of  field  roots  will  serve 
the  purpose,  there  is  no  variety  of  the  same  that  is  supe- 
rior to  the  rutabaga  or  the  mangel.  After  the  lambs  are 
able  to  take  all  the  milk,  the  ewes  may  be  given  6  to  8 
pounds  of  these  in  a  day,  or  practically  all  that  they  will 
consume.  They  should  be  given  in  two  feeds  and  in  the 
sliced  or  pulped  form.  Next  in  value  to  field  roots  is  corn 
silage,  but  it  is  not  to  be  fed  so  freely  as  field  roots. 
When  fed  in  large  quantities,  as  large  as,  say,  six  pounds 
or  more  daily,  it  has  not  proved  so  entirely  satisfactory 
as  field  roots  in  its  influence  on  the  health  of  the  sheep. 

While  various  concentrates  may  be  fed,  none  are 
more  suitable  under  average  conditions  than  a  mixture  of 
oats,  bran  and  corn  or  peas  in  the  proportion  of  five,  three 
and  two  parts  respectively.  Of  this  they  may  be  fed 
virtually  all  that  they  will  eat  with  a  relish.  A  very  lim- 
ited amount  of  oilcake  will  also  be  in  some  degree  help- 
ful when  it  can  be  obtained. 

Feeding  and  caring  for  the  lambs — The  aim  should 
be  to  have  lambs  that  are  to  be  shown  at  the  early  autumn 
fairs  come  in  February  or  March.  For  the  late  fairs,  as 
the  December  fat  stock  shows,  they  should  come  in  late 
March,  or  even  as  late  as  early  April.  If  they  come  too 
early  they  will  be  too  far  grown  to  meet  the  conditions 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR  EXHIBITION        263 

called  for  to  make  them  compete  in  that  form  which  is 
most  in  consonance  with  the  present  standard  of  feeding. 
For  such  a  use,  single  lambs  are  preferred,  for  reasons 
that  will  be  apparent.  As  some  lambs  fail  to  attain  to  the 
standard  indicated  in  the  promise  of  early  growth,  the 
aim  should  be  to  grow  more  than  the  number  called  for  by 
the  exhibit  or  exhibits,  and  to  select  from  these  as  the  sea- 
son for  exhibiting  draws  near. 

In  some  instances  it  may  be  possible  to  obtain  the 
assistance  which  a  nurse  ewe  may  give  to  a  lamb  in  fur- 
nishing milk  for  it,  in  addition  to  what  is  obtained  from 
its  own  mother.  Ewes  that  may  have  lost  their  own  off- 
spring may  be  thus  employed,  but  in  some  instances  it  is 
difficult  to  make  them  thus  perform  the  part  of  a  foster 
mother.  In  other  instances  the  opposite  may  be  true.  In 
no  other  way  can  the  most  satisfactory  development  be 
obtained  from  a  lamb  reared  for  any  purpose  than  by  sup- 
plying it  abundantly  with  ewe's  milk. 

Cow's  milk  is  sometimes  fed  to  lambs  that  are  being 
fitted  for  exhibition  with  a  view  to  increase  their  size. 
This  is  more  common  in  case  of  the  large  breeds  and  with 
lambs  reared  for  breeders  than  with  lambs  to  be  shown 
in  the  purely  fat  classes,  for  size  in  these  would  seem  to 
count  for  less  than  in  the  breeding  classes.  Lambs  are 
thus  fed  from  a  bottle  with  a  nipple  attached.  Some  sugar 
is  added  at  first,  that 'the  milk  may  thus  be  made  to  ap- 
proximate more  nearly  the  constituents  in  cow's  milk. 
In  some  instances  a  small  percentage  of  water  is  added. 
Lambs  are  sometimes  thus  fed  up  to  and  on  through  the 
fair  season.  Testimony,  however,  regarding  the  subse- 
quent behavior  of  lambs  thus  fed  when  reared  for  breed- 
ing uses  is  unfavorable.  This  applies  to  both  males  and 
females,  but  is  most  unfortunate  in  the  case  of  the  former, 
because  of  the  more  important  part  they  play  individ- 
ually in  the  flock. 

The  best  fodders  for  such  lambs  while  yet  unweaned 
include  clover,  alfalfa  and  vetch  hay.  These  should  be  of 


264  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

the  finest  growth  found  in  those  respective  kinds  of  hay. 
Alfalfa  cut  not  later  than  the  very  first  appearance  of 
blooms  is  particularly  suitable.  The  same  is  true  of  alsike 
clover,  or  the  alsike  and  small  white  varieties  grown  to- 
gether. The  vetch  hay  should  also  be  grown  so  thickly 
as  to  preclude  the  opportunity  for  coarse  growth.  When 
on  good  pasture  the  lambs  may  not  take  much  hay,  but 
they  will  consume  more  or  less  of  it  and  with  manifest 
advantage.  Such  fodder  should  be  fed  in  small  racks  in- 
accessible to  the  ewes.  For  succulence  they  should  be 
given  field  oats  or  cabbage  until  the  season  of  plentiful 
grazing  arrives.  The  most  suitable  roots  at  such  a  time 
are  rutabagas,  mangels  and  sugar  beets,  as  these  are  then 
in  good  condition  for  being  fed.  They  should  be  fed 
sliced  or  pulped,  and  if  sliced  the  aim  should  be  to  so  slice 
them  that  they  shall  be  fed  in  thin  strips.  The  cabbage 
heads  should  also  be  cut  up  or  sliced — in  fact,  minced  in 
a  sense — so  that  the  lambs  may  readily  partake  of  them. 

Young  lambs  will  begin  to  eat  grain,  when,  say,  not 
more  than  10  days  old.  There  is  no  better  grain  for 
lambs  when  they  begin  to  take  such  food  than  ground  or 
crushed  oats  fed  alone.  A  few  days  later  bran  may  be 
added  with  advantage.  When  they  have  become  well 
started  on  such  feed,  say  at  the  age  of  four  or  five  weeks, 
the  following  grain  ration  will  be  found  highly  suitable 
through  the  remainder  of  the  nursing  period :  Oats,  bran, 
corn  or  peas  by  measure  in  the  proportions  of  50*  25,  20 
and  5  per  cent  respectively.  Peas  are  preferable  to  corn 
during  the  milk  period,  but  corn  is  preferable  later.  They 
should  be  given  practically  all  the  grain  that  they  will 
eat. 

Lambs  to  be  exhibited  should  be  docked  and  cas- 
trated at  an  early  age  (see  pages  114-117).  Both  operations 
should  be  performed  with  the  exercise  of  careful  judg- 
ment. The  length  of  the  stub  has  a  bearing  on  the  sym- 
metry of  the  lamb,  and  also  the  size  of  the  sac  from 
which  the  testicles  have  been  drawn.  Short  docking  is 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR   EXHIBITION        265 

preferred  to  that  which  is  larger,  as  it  adds  to  the  square- 
like  appearance  of  the  buttock.  When  but  little  of  the 
sac  is  removed  in  castration,  it  fills  with  fat  in  the  well- 
finished  animal,  and  is  so  far  an  indication  of  condition. 

Grazing  for  the  dams — The  aim  should  be  to  furnish 
grazing  for  the  ewes  that  will  aid  them  in  furnishing  a 
large  amount  of  milk,  relatively,  until  the  lambs  are 
weaned.  Such  grazing  should  be  not  only  palatable  but 
highly  succulent. 

Winter  rye  is  first  ready  in  the  spring.  After  rye, 
brome  grass,  blue  grass,  clover  and  rape  follow  each  other 
in  near  succession  where  all  these  can  be  grown.  The 
spring  vetch  also  will  be  ready  somewhat  earlier  than 
rape.  After  vetch  or  rape  pasture  has  arrived,  so  com- 
pletely suitable  are  they  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  look 
for  other  pasture.  Peas,  oats,  rape  and  vetch  sown  to- 
gether furnish  grazing  that  is  high  in  favor  with  some 
of  those  who  grow  sheep  that  are  to  be  shown. 

Should  it  be  impracticable  to  furnish  grazing,  it  may 
be  possible  to  furnish  soiling  food,  and  this  when  chosen 
with  judgment  and  judiciously  fed  will  give  results  about 
as  satisfactory  as  those  obtained  from  grazing.  But  feed- 
ing soiling  food  involves  more  labor,  and  it  does  not 
furnish  an  equal  opportunity  with  grazing  for  the  sheep 
to  take  exercise.  The  best  soiling  foods  include  alfalfa, 
clover,  vetches  and  oats,  kale  and  rape.  When  these  are 
of  fine  growth  and  leafy  and  full  of  succulence,  they  will 
prove  much  more  suitable  than  when  the  opposite  condi- 
tions prevail.  None  of  these  can  be  obtained  so  early  as 
grazing,  and  until  food  can  be  obtained  from  them  the 
feeding  of  roots  should  be  continued,  but  not  necessarily 
after  the  feeding  of  soiling  food  or  even  the  grazing  of 
pasture  has  commenced. 

The  feeding  of  concentrates  to  both  ewes  and  lambs 
should  be  continued  without  change  until  the  lambs  are 
weaned,  except  that  in  nearly  all  instances,  it  may  be  re- 
duced in  quantity.  For  the  components  of  the  grain  food 


266  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

for  such  feeding  of  the  ewes  see  page  247,  and  of  the 
lambs  see  page  249. 

Lambs  subsequently  to  weaning — Lambs  for  exhibi- 
tion should  be  allowed  to  remain  somewhat  longer  with 
the  ewes  than  other  lambs.  They  should  seldom  be 
weaned  short  of  the  age  of  five  months.  Before  being 
weaned  they  are  allowed  access  to  grazing  with  the  dams 
during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  day;  but  subse- 
quently, and  indeed  after  the  arrival  of  hot  weather,  they 
are  kept  in  sheds  and  the  yards  attached  much  of  the 
time.  After  the  weaning  period  they  are  allowed  to  graze 
for  an  hour  or  more  in  the  morning,  and  also  in  the  even- 
ing, but  in  some  instances  they  are  only  allowed  to  graze 
once  a  day,  but  for  a  longer  period.  When  grazed  once 
a  day,  the  evening  is  preferred,  as  dew  is  not  then  present 
on  the  pastures.  As  the  season  for  exhibiting  approaches, 
the  period  for  grazing  should  probably  be  curtailed,  as 
only  about  so  much  exercise  is  needed,  and  if  taken  in  ex- 
cess, increase  would  probably  be  somewhat  retarded. 

Until  the  fair  season,  the  feeding  of  more  or  less 
cured  fodders  should  be  continued  from  the  weaning  sea- 
son onward.  Even  though  the  lambs  are  being  fed  liber- 
ally on  green  food,  they  will  consume  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  such  food,  for  the  reason  that  the  appetite  calls 
for  it.  It  is  craved  probably  because  it  acts  as  a  regulator 
of  digestion.  It  will  best  serve  the  purpose  if  composed 
of  such  fodders  as  alfalfa,  clover  or  vetch  hay. 

While  various  kinds  of  grazing  may  be  used  subse- 
quently to  weaning,  none  is  more  suitable  than  clover  and 
rape,  both  of  which  may  usually  be  in  season  at  such  a 
time.  These  will  answer  practically  the  same  purpose  if 
fed  as  soiling  food. 

After  the  lambs  are  weaned,  they  will  profit  by  the 
judicious  feeding  of  field  roots,  or  what  may  be  an  equiv- 
alent, as,  for  instance,  cabbage.  Fall  turnips  come  earlier 
than  other  roots,  and  they  may  be  fed — roots  and  tops 
together.  Later  rutabagas  and  mangels  or  sugar  beets 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR   EXHIBITION        267 

may  be  fed,  but  for  fear  of  urinary  troubles  mangels 
should  not  be  fed  to  the  males.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
restrict  the  feeding  of  roots  somewhat  at  such  a  time, 
lest  the  lambs  should  not  take  enough  grain. 

The  following  grain  ration  will  be  found  suitable 
after  the  weaning  season :  Oats,  bran,  corn  or  peas  and 
oil  cake  in  the  proportions  of  50,  15,  25  and  10  per  cent, 
but  toward  the  end  of  the  fitting  period  the  proportion 
of  the  corn  fed  should  be  increased,  to  add  high  finish  to 
the  carcass.  The  grain  should  be  fed  in  liberal  supply, 
but  never  to  the  extent  of  putting*  the  animals  off  feed  or 
of  inducing  that  flabby  condition  of  flesh  that  indicates 
over-fitting.  To  feed  just  enough  and  not  too  much  of 
any  one  kind  of  food  calls  for  the  continual  exercise  of 
judgment. 

Trimming  the  wool  for  the  fairs — The  practice  of 
what  is  known  as  "trimming"  the  fleece  of  show  sheep 
when  preparing  them  for  exhibition  is  almost  universal 
with  sheep  of  the  middle  wool  breeds.  It  is  practiced  to 
a  less  extent  with  sheep  of  the  long  wool  breeds.  Merinos 
are  not  thus  trimmed,  whatsoever  the  type  or  breed  may 
be,  but  in  some  instances  umber  is  rubbed  sparingly  on 
the  hips,  legs  and  breast  where  the  wool  has  become 
frayed  by  rubbing.  The  smaller  the  breed  that  is 
trimmed,  the  more  severe,  as  a  rule,  is  the  trimming.  By 
trimming  is  meant  the  removal  of  the  points  of  the  wool 
fibers  of  the  fleece  or  of  some  part  of  it  with  the  shears, 
and  in  some  instances  the  further  removal  in  addition  of 
small  portions  of  the  length  of  the  wool  fiber  on  certain 
parts  of  the  body.  As  the  wool  fibers  of  Merinos  are  very 
frequently  glued  together  more  or  less  at  the  outer  ex- 
tremities, such  trimming  of  the  fleece  would  not  be  possi- 
ble. 

The  object  sought  in  trimming  the  fleece  is  to  add 
to  the  beautiful  and  symmetrical  appearance  of  the  animal 
when  it  comes  into  the  show  ring.  The  sheep  whose 
fleece  is  carefully  trimmed  will  not  only  appear  more 


268  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

symmetrical,  as  a  rule,  than  the  one  not  trimmed,  but  it 
will  also  appear  larger  and  plumper  in  its  entire  anat- 
omy. The  optical  illusion  thus  produced  is  not  a  little 
surprising.  Trimming  may  also  tend  to  hide  defects  of 
conformation  which  otherwise  would  be  more  apparent  to 
the  eye.  Because  of  this  the  practice  of  trimming  has 
been  fiercely  assailed,  and  without  sufficient  reason.  If 
the  judge  were  not  allowed  to  use  his  hands  when  making 
the  awards  on  sheep,  the  morality  of  such  trimming 
might  be  questioned.  The  competent  judge  by  the  use 
of  his  hands  is  supposed  to  discover  any  defects  of  car- 
cass hidden  by  the  trimmer's  art  or  by  the  covering  which 
nature  bestowed  upon  the  animal.  It  would  seem  to  be 
quite  as  commendable  for  the  exhibitor  of  sheep  to  im- 
prove them  by  trimming  as  for  the  exhibitor  of  cattle  to 
comb  the  hair  upwards  near  the  topline,  that  the  back 
may  thereby  appear  wider  to  the  eye. 

The  trimming  of  the  fleece  of  the  middle  wool  breeds 
is  accomplished  in  outline  as  follows :  The  fleece  is 
blocked  out  with  the  shears  in  what  may  be  termed  the 
rough ;  that  is,  it  is  given  the  desired  outline  by  clipping 
off  the  projecting  points  of  the  wool  fibers.  In  doing 
this  the  top  and  bottom  lines  should  be  made  straight 
and  parallel,  the  breast  full  and  rounding,  the  thighs 
nicely  turned  and  the  buttock  wide  across  and  yet  plump. 
The  fleece  is  then  gone  over  with  a  stiff  brush  dipped  in 
water,  to  aid  in  straightening  the  ends  of  the  wool  fibers. 
In  some  instances  a  currycomb  is  also  used.  The  clipping 
of  the  points,  which  follows,  is  made  by  using  sharp  thin- 
bladed  and  easy-working  shears,  which  are  held  quite 
level  and  at  right  angles  to  the  wool  fibers.  To  make  a 
finished  picture,  the  trimming  must  be  repeated  several 
times  at  intervals.  Much  practice  and  good  judgment  are 
called  for  to  make  an  exact  trimmer.  But  little  trimming- 
is  given  to  sheep  of  the  long-wool  breeds. 

When  trimming  sheep  that  are  to  be  shown,  the 
peculiarities  of  fleece  should  be  given  due  recognition. 


GROWING  AND    FITTING    SHEEP    FOR    EXHIBITION        269 

The  Down  breeds  are  covered  with  a  fleece  of  varying 
length,  according  to  the  breed.  In  these  density  counts 
for  more  than  length  of  staple.  The  less  dense  the  wool, 
however,  in  a  breed,  the  more  valuable  is  length  of  staple, 
hence  the  less  severe  is  the  trimming  as  the  length  of 
staple  increases.  The  fleece  of  long  wools  should  be  of 
great  length  of  staple,  hence  the  wool  fibers  are  not 
clipped  back  to  any  extent  save  on  the  back. 

Washing  and  smearing  show  sheep — Certain  breeds 
of  sheep  are  washed  when  preparing  them  for  the  fairs. 
Such  washing,  however,  is  apparently  confined  to  the 
long  wooled  breeds.  Why  washing  should  virtually  be 
confined  to  the  long  wooled  breeds  is  not  clearly  apparent, 
at  least  in  all  instances.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the 
fleece  of  the  long  wool  breeds  is  less  able  to  protect  itself 
from  the  presence  of  foreign  matters,  and  the  wool  is 
washed  to  remove  these.  Washing  tends  to  free  the 
pores  of  the  skin  from  gummy  and  other  adherent  mat- 
ters. In  so  far  as  it  does  this,  it  promotes  the  natural  flow 
of  the  lubricants  that  help  to  keep  the  wool  fibers  in  a 
correct  condition.  The  first  washing  is  given  not  long 
subsequently  to  the  shearing,  and  the  second  within  two 
to  three  weeks  of  the  show  season.  The  washing  may  be 
conveniently  done  in  a  dipping  vat  if  not  unduly  large. 
Castile  soap  of  good  quality  is  generally  used.  But  after 
the  washing  all  trace  of  the  soap  should  be  removed  by 
careful  rinsing  with  clear  water,  as  the  continued  presence 
of  soap  would  tend  to  make  the  fleece  harsh  and  dry. 
When  the  washing  is  done  sufficiently  long  before  the 
time  for  exhibiting,  the  yolk  so  extends  along  the  wool 
fibers  as  to  give  them  a  brilliant  appearance,  the  outside 
of  the  fleece  meanwhile  being  so  protected  to  preserve 
its  snow-white  appearance  in  the  show  ring. 

The  practice  of  smearing  the  wool  of  certain  breeds, 
as,  for  instance,  the  Down  breeds,  is  sometimes  adopted. 
It  was  followed  more  or  less  in  Culley's  time,  and  it  is 
still  practiced  in  many  sections  of  Great  Britain,  where 


270  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

it  is  more  popular  even  now  than  in  America.  Smearing 
or  coloring  sheep  means  saturating  the  surface  of  the 
body,  more  especially  along  the  back  or  sides,  with  some 
prepared  coloring  matter.  Various  mixtures  are  used. 
These  vary  with  the  fashion  in  favor  at  the  time.  A  mix- 
ture much  in  favor  is  made  by  using  yellow  ocher,  burnt 
umber  and  olive  oil.  The  ocher  in  powdered  form  is 
added  to  the  oil.  The  umber  is  next  added,  until  the 
mixture  has  the  desired  shade.  It  is  applied  by  pouring 
a  small  quantity  into  the  palm  of  one  hand,  rubbing  the 
palms  together  and  then  applying  to  the  fleece.  The  ap- 
plication is  more  effective  when  applied  after  trimming 
the  fleece,  and  blankets  should  then  be  used.  It  is  claimed 
that  more  of  uniformity  in  appearance  is  secured  by 
smearing,  but  it  injures  the  wool  somewhat  for  manufac- 
turing uses.  Some  breeders  use  it  as  a  sort  of  trade 
mark  by  which  their  sheep  may  be  distinguished  from 
others.  The  practice  probably  originated,  in  a  degree, 
to  protect  the  sheep  from  the  cold  rains  of  autumn  and 
winter.  But  since  sheep  fitted  for  fairs  are  not  exposed 
to  such  storms,  it  is  at  least  questionable  if  smearing  as 
such  should  find  countenance  in  the  show  ring. 

Smearing  is  only  practiced  with  certain  breeds.  It  is 
practiced  more  or  less  with  all  the  Down  and  dark-faced 
breeds,  including  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Suffolk, 
Hampshire  and  Oxford  Down  breeds.  Why  smearing  is 
practiced  on  these  and  not  on  certain  other  breeds  is  not 
altogether  apparent.  The  whims  of  the  exhibitors  of 
these,  and  more  especially  of  the  shepherds,  would  seem 
to  be  largely  responsible  for  the  innovation.  Of  course, 
the  dark  face  and  legs  of  these  breeds  harmonize  better 
with  dark  shades  in  the  fleece  than  would  the  white  faces 
and  legs  of  other  breeds. 

The  fine-wool  breeds  are  never  smeared,  as  the  natu- 
ral gluing  of  the  wool  fibers  at  their  tips  renders  such 
smearing  entirely  unnecessary  as  a  means  of  protection. 
The  Dorsets,  Tunis  and  Cheviots  are  not  thus  smeared. 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP    FOR   EXHIBITION        271 

The  same  is  true  of  all  the  long  and  coarse  wool  breeds. 
Owing  to  peculiarities  of  wool  formation,  smearing  them 
would  make  them  appear  ludicrous. 

Of  course,  show  sheep  should  be  kept  free  from  ticks. 
This  may  necessitate  dipping  them  as  lambs,  and  also 
annually  when  shown  in  subsequent  years.  The  dipping 
may  be  done  in  the  usual  way,  and  along  with  the  other 
members  of  the  flock ;  or  it  may  be  done  by  using  a  small 
tank,  and  separately,  as  a  prevention  against  the  possi- 
bility of  injury  (see  page  433).  The  wisdom  of  combining 
dipping  and  ordinary  washing  is  at  least  to  be  questioned. 
Dipping  rather  detracts  from  the  external  beauty  of  the 
fleece  for  a  time.  Hence  an  interval  of  say  not  less  than 
six  weeks  should  elapse  between  the  time  of  dipping  and 
the  showing  of  the  sheep. 

Special  treatment  for  Merino  sheep — When  prepar- 
ing Merinos  for  the  fairs,  the  feeding  called  for  is  the 
same  virtually  as  for  other  sheep.  Additional  precautions, 
however,  are  called  for  to  secure  that  condition  in  the 
wool  that  commends  it  to  the  skilled  judge.  Should  Me- 
rino sheep  be  exposed  to  outdoor  conditions  up  to  the 
time  of  the  fairs,  the  fleece  would  have  a  rough  and  shaggy 
appearance  externally.  It  would  not  have  that  exquis- 
itely soft  response  to  the  sense  of  touch  so  much  desired 
in  Merino  wool.  Nor  would  the  yolk  be  found  in  that 
condition  and  distribution  which  would  result  in  high- 
est luster  and  beauty  in  the  wool  fibers  on  all  parts  of  the 
body. 

While  all  the  characteristics  such  as  belong  to  high 
quality  wool  in  the  Merino  fleece  should  be  sought  (see 
Chapter  III),  the  following  are  to  be  regarded  as  spe- 
cially important:  (i)  Absolute  freedom  in  the  external 
surface  of  the  wool  from  clots  and  indurations  and  much 
softness  and  moistness  to  the  touch ;  (2)  a  beautiful  lus- 
trous condition  of  the  wool  when  the  fleece  is  opened  on 
any  part  of  the  body ;  (3)  an  even  distribution  of  the  yolk 
along  the  entire  length  of  the  wool,  resulting  in  a  glis- 


272  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

tening  appearance  in  each  fiber  when  held  separately; 
(4)  a  shade  of  color  in  the  wool  masses  that  may  vary 
from  a  glistening  white  to  an  orange  or  golden  tint  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  the  yolk  present  and  to  some 
extent  it  may  be  to  the  strain  of  the  sheep. 

Such  a  condition  of  the  wool  is  greatly  promoted  by 
judicious  housing  and  blanketing  for  some  time  previous 
to  the  fairs.  When  Merinos  are  not  housed  for  some  time 
previous  to  the  fairs,  clots  will  probably  be  found  on  the 
external  surface  of  the  fleece  and  it  will  be  harsh  to  the 
touch.  Exposure  to  heavy  rains  may  result  in  the  bleach- 
ing of  the  yolk  to  a  dull  tint  and  in  such  injury  to  its 
stratifications  as  to  cause  it  to  wash  down  into  the  wool 
in  masses  that  disfigure  it.  Especially  will  such  changes 
of  the  yolk  follow  exposure  subject  to  housing.  The 
housing  should  protect  from  exposure  to  rain,  dews  and 
frost,  and  it  should  cover  from,  say,  6  to  12  weeks,  pre- 
viously to  the  fair. 

In  the  case  of  Merinos  blankets  not  only  help  to  keep 
the  fleece  clean  externally,  but  they  aid  in  the  even  dis- 
tribution of  the  yolk  because  of  the  influence  which  they 
exert  probably  on  temperature  in  the  wool.  They  are 
also  used  on  other  sheep  as  the  show  season  approaches, 
and  more  especially  when  in  transit  and  at  the  fairs.  In 
addition  to  keeping  the  fleece  clean  and  compact,  blankets 
protect  more  or  less  from  flies  and  provide  warmth.  At 
the  fairs  they  also  tend  to  prevent  thoughtless  visitors 
from  disturbing  the  wool.  Blanketing  is  more  essential 
when  preparing  Merino  sheep  for  the  fairs  than  with 
sheep  of  other  breeds. 

Show  sheep  in  transit  to  the  fairs — When  sheep  are 
to  be  shown,  the  aim  should  be  to  have  all  the  arrange- 
ments pertaining  to  the  work  made  in  ample  time.  This 
means  that  the  entries  shall  be  made  early;  that  the 
means  of  transit  shall  be  arranged  for  so  that  the  time  for 
leaving  shall  be  definitely  and  unerringly  fixed,  and  that 
food  shall  be  provided  in  ample  supply.  These  arrange- 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR   EXHIBITION        273 

ments  must,  of  course,  follow  and  not  precede  a  definite 
mapping  out  of  the  show  circuit. 

Every  care  should  be  observed  in  so  making  the  en- 
tries that  no  opportunity  would  be  lost  in  competing  for 
a  prize  which  there  was  any  reasonable  hope  of  winning. 
The  aim  should  be  to  have  a  number  of  bales  of  good 
clover  and  alfalfa  included  in  the  food  shipment, 
as  such  food  cannot  be  secured  at  all  fairs.  By  another 
method  the  hay  is  cut  and  carried  in  sacks.  Cabbage 
heads  and  field  roots  in  liberal  supply  should  be  sacked, 
especially  the  latter.  The  grain  supply,  mixed  or  un- 
mixed, is  carried  in  sacks,  and  it  should  include  a  supply 
of  wheat  bran  and  oil  cake,  nor  should  salt  be  forgotten. 
The  tools  called  for  include  hammer,  saw,  nippers,  shears 
and  a  trocar.  The  medicines  include  blue  vitriol  and  lin- 
seed or  castor  oil.  Blankets  and  bedding  and  washing 
utensils  for  the  shepherd  are  essential  to  complete  the 
outfit. 

A  day  or  two  before  shipping,  the  food  should  be  re- 
duced. The  reduction  should  apply  to  both  grain  and 
roots.  Heavy  feeding  of  grain  at  such  a  time  will  dis- 
turb the  digestion.  To  feed  large  quantities  of  roots 
would  produce  a  too  lax  condition  of  the  bowels.  The 
reduction  thus  made  should  continue  while  the  sheep  are 
in  transit. 

Sheep  which  carry  a  relatively  large  amount  of  flesh 
should  not  be  driven  far  when  loading  them  for  shipment 
or  unloading  them  on  the  fair  grounds,  and  when  driven 
it  should  be  leisurely.  The  journey  should  be  made 
morning  or  evening,  and  never  in  the  heat  of  the  day. 
The  necessary  directions  in  the  cars  for  rams  and  ewes, 
also  lambs,  should  be  made  beforehand,  that  each  should 
be  thus  afforded  opportunity  to  take  its  proper  food. 
They  should  also  be  given  water  in  such  quantities  as 
they  will  take,  but  of  this  they  will  not  take  much  when 
thev  are  in  transit. 


274  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

When  at  the  fairs  food  should  not  be  given  to  the 
sheep  in  quantities  too  large  the  first  day.  Subsequently 
they  should  be  in  condition  to  go  on  a  full  ration  again, 
and  the  food  should  be  the  same  in  kind  as  that  fed  be- 
fore shipment.  Succulent  food  especially  is  much  rel- 
ished at  such  a  time,  and  should  be  fed  up  to  the  limit  of 
what  may  be  judicious.  Kohl-rabi,  cabbage  and  green 
clover  make  excellent  food  adjuncts  at  the  autumn  fairs, 
and  all  these  may  usually  be  had  at  that  season  in  any 
state.  Where  the  facilities  will  admit  of  it,  the  aim  should 
be  to  allow  the  sheep  to  take  a  little  exercise  in  the  cool 
of  the  day  while  picking  over  some  portion  of  the  grazing 
such  as  may  be  near  the  show  pens. 

It  is  of  much  importance  that  the  fair  grounds  shall 
be  reached  a  day  or  two  before  the  regular  opening  of 
the  fair.  The  sheep  are  thus  given  opportunity  to  recover 
bloom  lost  in  transit;  the  shepherd  has  time  to  groom 
them  again  with  the  shears,  and  in  this  way  they  come 
into  the  show  ring  with  the  best  possible  chance  which 
can  be  given  to  them  for  winning  in  the  competitions. 

Management  subsequently  to  the  fair  season — In 
some  respects  the  management  of  lambs,  rams  and  ewes 
subsequently  to  the  fair  is  very  similar.  In  other  respects 
it  is  different.  More  especially  with  reference  to  certain 
details  that  apply  to  the  management  of  each.  All  classes 
of  sheep  that  have  been  shown  and  are  to  be  shown  again, 
whatsoever  the  age,  should  be  fed  less  heavily  for  a  con- 
siderable period  on  their  return  from  the  fairs,  but  the 
reduction  should  be  made  gradually.  The  benefit  from 
such  reduction  lies  in  relaxing  the  tension  put  upon  the 
digestive  organs,  and  in  holding  back  premature  develop- 
ment. The  management  of  shearling  wethers  subse- 
quently to  the  season  for  exhibiting  need  not  be  consid- 
ered, as  in  nearly  all  instances  they  are  slaughtered  at 
the  close  of  the  exhibition  season. 

When  lambs  return  from  the  fairs  that  are  to  be 
shown  in  the  shearling-  form  as  wethers,  the  grain  por- 


GROWING  AND  FITTING  SHEEP   FOR  EXHIBITION        275 

tion  should  be  reduced  about  one-half  and  the  oilcake  in 
it  should  also  be  proportionately  reduced.  The  following 
grain  mixture  will  be  very  suitable :  Oats  50  per  cent,  bran 
25,  corn  or  peas  20  and  oilcake  5.  They  should  have  a 
liberal  supply  of  fodder  and  roots,  and  if  the  season  will 
admit  of  it  more  or  less  of  grazing. 

When  the  winter  closes  in  they  should  be  given 
enough  grain  to  result  in  the  maintenance  of  good  flesh. 
Until  grazing  comes  in  the  spring  the  following  grain 
food  should  serve  the  purpose:  Oats  and  wheat  bran, 
in  the  proportions  of  3  and  2  parts  by  weight.  The  sup- 
ply of  roots  should  be  most  liberal  until  the  arrival  of 
grazing,  after  which  it  may  be  reduced  and  then  discon- 
tinued for  a  time. 

The  grazing  may  consist  of  such  green  food  as  may 
be  in  season,  as  blue  grass,  clover  or  rape.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  grazing  season,  or  even  for  a  longer  period, 
they  may  be  given  access  to  the  grazing  for  a  considerable 
time,  morning  and  evening,  but  later  and  toward  the  show 
season,  access  to  the  grazing  for  one  hour  or  two  in  the 
evening  will  give  them  enough  exercise.  Some  green  food 
fed  inside  may  also  be  advantageous.  The  following 
grain  ration  will  answer  nicely  during  the  grazing  season 
until  the  final  forcing  period  begins. 

The  forcing  period  should  cover  from  two  to  three 
months  preceding  the  fair  season.  The  following  grain 
ration  along  with  others  that  may  be  given,  will  suffice : 
Oats  50  per  cent,  bran  15,  corn  or  peas  25  and  wheat  10. 
When  on  full  feed  from  two  to  three  pounds  should  be 
fed  daily.  More  corn  or  peas  should  be  added  if  neces- 
sary as  the  season  approaches  for  entering  the  show  ring. 
The  feeding  of  roots  in  the  autumn  and  also  of  fodders 
may  be  conducted  as  in  the  case  of  the  lambs. 

Shearling  wethers  to  be  shown  are  housed  rather 
than  grazed;  that  is,  they  are  housed  to  the  extent  of 
remaining  in  the  sheds  at  night  and  during  all  the  warm 
portion  of  the  day.  The  requisites  to  provide  them  with 


276  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

ventilation  and  to  protect  them  from  flies  are  virtually 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  lambs  (see  page  322).  An  apart- 
ment of  a  well-lighted  and  well-aired  basement  is  very 
suitable,  because  of  the  coolness  which  it  furnishes  in 
summer. 

In  the  case  of  rams  and  ewes  to  be  shown  again,  the 
reduction  in  flesh  should  be  very  gradually  made,  and  at 
the  first  it  should  be  accomplished  more  through  exercise 
than  by  a  material  reduction  in  the  grain  fed.  Should  the 
reduction  follow  too  quickly,  the  bright  luster  in  the  wool 
will  be  diminished,  and  in  some  parts  it  may  fall  off.  Un- 
til the  season  for  showing  again,  the  care  given  to  rams, 
and  likewise  the  food,  will  be  much  the  same  as  that 
called  for  by  shearling  wethers  (see  page  275),  with  the 
difference,  first,  that  they  should  be  kept  more  on  pasture, 
and,  second,  that  they  be  given  less  carbonaceous  food,  as 
corn.  The  grazing  gives  the  needed  exercise  and  the  car- 
bonaceous grain  portion  would  be  unfavorable  to  breed- 
ing. 

Ewes  that  are  to  be  shown  again  should  be  given 
much  the  same  kinds  of  food  and  the  same  kind  of  treat- 
ment as  would  be  suitable  for  rams,  as  just  submitted. 
They  should  be  bred  early,  and  if  allowed  to  give  nurse 
to  their  lambs  the  latter  should  be  weaned  early,  or  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  put  sufficient  increase  on  the  car- 
cass to  prepare  it  for  competing  with  even  a  reasonable 
hope  of  winning.  Because  of  the  extent  to  which  flesh  is 
usually  lost  during  the  nursing  period,  some  breeders  rear 
the  lambs  produced  on  other  dams.  Ewes  not  to  be 
shown  again  should  be  reduced  in  flesh  with  all  reason- 
able quickness.  As  difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced 
in  getting  such  ewes  to  breed,  the  aim  should  be  to  have 
them  served  with  a  young  and  vigorous  male.  In  some 
instances  service  is  allowed  from  more  than  one  male. 

The  exercise  that  is  required — Yards  alone  may  fur- 
nish enough  exercise  for  sheep  reared  only  for  being 
shown  in  the  fat  classes  prior  to  disposing  of  them.  But 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR  EXHIBITION        277 

even  these  will  profit  by  the  opportunity  to  take  more  or 
less  of  exercise  in  the  pasture.  The  exercise  not  only  tends 
to  maintain  health  and  vigor,  but  it  also  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  maintenance  of  a  free  and  easy  locomotion. 

While  yards  may  suffice  in  some  instances  to  furnish 
exercise  for  sheep  to  be  shown  in  the  fat  classes,  show 
sheep  that  are  to  be  used  in  breeding  must  have  larger 
room  for  exercise.  They  must  be  given  the  larger  room 
of  an  ample  paddock,  or  better  still  the  liberty  to  roam 
about  in  a  small  pasture.  Such  exercise  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  sustain  begetting  power  in  the  rams  and 
conceptive  power  in  the  ewes.  The  opportunity  thus 
given  to  exercise  should  be  such  that  it  may  hinder  some- 
what the  loading  of  the  body  with  that  amount  of  fat 
which  is  allowable  in  the  fat  classes,  but  such  exercise  is 
absolutely  essential  if  the  breeding  powers  are  to  be  re- 
tained. 

While  in  order  to  secure  the  necessary  exercise  dis- 
tant pastures  would  be  inconvenient,  those  not  immedi- 
ately at  hand  may  be  made  to  answer,  the  chief  objec- 
tion being  loss  in  time  to  the  shepherd  in  taking  them  to 
and  from  the  pastures.  The  better  plan,  therefore,  is  to 
have  the  pastures  near  and  to  control  the  degree  of  the 
exercise  given  by  the  time  given  to  the  sheep  to  remain  in 
the  pastures. 

During  a  prolonged  fair  circuit  the  question  of  ex- 
ercise during  the  same  becomes  increasingly  important, 
owing  to  the  closeness  of  the  confinement  in  the  show 
pens.  The  aim  should  be  to  exercise  them  for  a  short 
time  morning  and  evening.  The  aim  should  be  further 
to  allow  those  which  are  pen  companions  to  graze  thus 
and  take  exercise  together.  When  they  become  "shaky" 
on  their  feet  while  making  the  show  circuit,  the  want  of 
exercise  will  probably  be  the  cause  of  such  a  condition. 

Excessive  fatness  to  be  avoided — The  degree  of  the 
fatness  to  be  sought  has  not  yet  been  decided  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  everyone.  Even  the  highest  authorities  are 


278  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

not  a  unit  with  reference  to  this  question.  This  applies 
not  only  to  sheep  in  the  fat  classes,  but  also  to  those  in 
the  breeding  classes. 

The  contention  is  frequently  made  that  animals  in 
the  fat  classes  should  be  brought  to  that  degree  of  finish 
only  that  will  best  fit  the  carcass  for  profitable  disposal 
on  the  block.  This  would  mean,  though  differently  ex- 
pressed, that  the  animal  capable  of  winning  alive  should 
also  win  out  in  the  dead  meat  class.  This  as  a  theory  is 
excellent,  but  in  practice  the  winnings  of  the  animals 
when  alive  seldom  correspond  with  the  winnings  in  the 
carcass  or  dead  meat  classes.  It  is  not  easy  to  give  the 
reasons  why  it  is  so,  but  it  is  probably  true  that  in  the 
live  classes  the  unwritten  standard  for  judging  animals 
alive  calls  for  the  highest  perfection  of  development  and 
finish  attainable  that  does  no  violence  to  symmetry,  good 
firm  handling  and  an  easy  gait,  while  the  unwritten  stand- 
ard for  judging  dead  calls  for  a  carcass  that  will  sell  for 
the  highest  price  to  the  consumer.  Such  finish  in  the 
living  animal  is  always,  or  nearly  always,  beyond  the  de- 
gree of  finish  in  the  carcass  that  exactly  meets  the  de- 
mands of  the  consumer. 

The  further  contention  is  frequently  made  that  when 
sheep  are  shown  in  the  breeding  classes  they  should  not 
come  into  the  ring  in  higher  finish  than  is  consonant  with 
good  and  regular  breeding.  This  also  sounds  well  in 
theory,  but  the  fact  remains  that  the  present  standard  for 
judging  calls  for  a  higher  degree  of  finish  in  the  animals 
than  is  compatible  with  the  very  best  results  to  be  ob- 
tained in  breeding.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  animals 
which  stand  the  best  chance  for  winning  in  the  show 
rings  will  not  be  the  best  breeders,  and  vice  versa. 

But  whether  sheep  are  shown  in  the  fat  or  breeding 
classes,  there  is  a  degree  of  finish  which  if  passed  will 
hold  them  back  from  highest  honors  in  the  ring.  The  in- 
dications of  over-finish  include:  (i)  A  soft  and  flabby 
condition  of  the  flesh  on  certain  parts  of  the  body,  espe- 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR  EXHIBITION        279 

cially  at  the  flanks.  Such  a  condition  is  present  more  fre- 
quently in  the  show  rams  than  in  show  wethers.  (2)  Labored 
locomotion  including  a  limping  or  "groggy"  gait,  which 
points  with  no  little  certainty  to  imprudent  or  over- 
feeding. (3)  Wool  that  is  losing  its  luster.  When  wool 
covering  sheep  loaded  with  flesh  has  a  dull  appearance, 
it  indicates,  with  no  little  certainty,  fading,  that  is,  reced- 
ing bloom.  These  evidences  are  more  objectionable,  rel- 
atively, in  breeding  animals  than  in  the  fat  classes,  for 
when  present  they  indicate  that  the  usefulness  of  the  animals 
for  breeding  is  virtually  gone.  Excess  in  fitting  sheep 
is  sooner  reached  with  breeding  stocks  than  with  those  in 
the  fat  classes. 

The  age  to  which  sheep  may  be  shown — They  are  sel- 
dom found  in  the  show  ring  beyond  the  age  of  three  years, 
for  the  reason  that  they  seldom  maintain  form  and  bloom 
beyond  that  age  equal  in  degree  with  sheep  that  are 
younger,  nor  is  the  fleece  of  a  sheep  beyond  the  age  men- 
tioned equal  to  that  of  the  same  sheep  at  a  younger  age. 
The  same  sheep,  therefore,  seldom  appears  in  the  show 
ring  during  more  than  three  successive  seasons,  and  in 
many  instances  two  seasons  is  the  limit  of  the  show  yard 
career. 

Sheep  never  appear  in  finer  bloom  than  when  they 
are  shown  as  lambs.  At  that  age  they  carry  wool  longer 
than  that  which  they  carry  as  shearlings.  But  shearlings 
also  may  carry  that  finish  which  is  very  attractive  to  the 
eye.  They  are  also  nearly  matured ;  hence  when  the  con- 
test for  supremacy  is  between  shearlings  and  those  that 
are  older,  the  former  usually  bear  away  the  honors.  Sheep 
seldom  appear  in  the  show  ring  the  third  season  in  as 
perfect  form  as  previously,  although  there  are  some  ex- 
ceptions. If  exhibitors  are  to  hold  their  place,  therefore, 
in  the  show  rings,  the  necessity  for  superseding  the  older 
show  animals  is  continuous. 

That  the  high  fitting  called  for  to  enable  breeding 
sheep  to  carry  honors  does  militate  against  the  most  sue- 


280  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

cessful  breeding  cannot  be  questioned.  Even  though  be- 
getting power  should  not  be  lost  in  the  rams,  they  are  not 
so  valuable  as  breeders  as  they  would  have  been  had  they 
not  been  thus  fitted.  Their  movement  in  service  is  less 
active  than  that  of  other  rams,  which  is  so  far  against 
them,  and  the  animals  begotten  by  them  are  in  many  in- 
stances not  equal  in  vigor  with  lambs  begotten  by  what 
are  termed  field  rams.  The  lambs  produced  by  ewes  thus 
fitted  are  also  usually  inferior  to  other  lambs  in  inherent 
ruggedness,  even  though  such  ewes  should  retain  the 
ability  to  conceive.  Those  who  exhibit  sheep,  therefore, 
must  not  look  for  results  in  the  line  of  breeding  that  they 
may  reap  from  members  of  the  flock  not  thus  fitted. 

Miscellaneous  observations  on  showing  sheep — (i) 
Certain  terms  are  commonly  used  with  reference  to  the 
showing  of  sheep  to  designate  exactly  what  is  included 
in  each  exhibit  or  what  is  meant  by  each  award  made. 
Sheep  are  shown  singly,  in  pairs,  in  pens  or  in  flocks.  In 
the  classes  by  ages  they  are  shown  singly.  In  the  class 
exhibits  a  ram  lamb  is  a  male  shown  under  the  age  of  one 
year;  a  shearling  ram  is  a  male  shown  between  the  age 
of  one  and  two  years ;  and  an  aged  ram  is  a  male  that  has 
passed  the  age  of  two  years.  The  ewes  are  similarly 
graded.  When  shown  for  champion  honors  both  rams 
and  ewes  are  also  shown  singly.  A  pair  is  two  of  one  sex, 
but  usually  only  ewes  are  shown  in  pairs.  A  pen,  unless 
otherwise  stated,  consists  of  three  individuals.  In  the 
breeding  classes  a  pen  usually  includes  one  male,  what- 
soever the  number  of  females.  In  the  fat  classes  a  pen 
usually  includes  five  wethers.  A  flock  in  some  instances 
includes  an  aged  ram,  a  shearling  ram  and  a  ram  lamb ; 
also  the  same  number  of  ewes  of  similar  ages,  but  fre- 
quently it  includes  a  mature  male  and  three  females 
shown  in  the  aged,  shearling  and  lamb  forms.  The  terms 
pen  and  flock  are  sometimes  used  to  express  the  same 
thing.  A  special  prize  means  a  premium  offered  outside 
of  and  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  list  of  premiums.  A 


GROWING  AND   FITTING   SHEEP   FOR   EXHIBITION        28l 

champion  prize  is  a  prize  offered  the  best  animal,  male 
or  female,  of  the  breed,  but  the  term  champion  also  ap- 
plies to  a  pen  or  flock.  A  sweepstake  prize  is  a  prize 
offered  for  the  best  individual,  male  or  female,  the  best 
pen  or  the  best  flock,  all  breeds  competing. 

2.  The  prize  lists  issued  by  the  various  fair  associa- 
tions usually  determine  the  date  beyond  which  breeding 
sheep  are  not  to  be  shorn.  Usually  this  date  does  not  go 
back  further  than  April  1st.  When  the  date  is  not  thus 
fixed,  there  is  no  dishonesty  in  shearing  earlier,  providing 
there  is  no  misrepresentation  as  to  the  date  of  shearing 
in  response  to  a  question  from  the  judge  while  engaged 
in  making  the  awards.  In  order  to  add  to  the  length  of 
the  wool,  what  is  termed  "stubble  shearing"  is  sometimes 
practiced.  This  means  shearing  which  leaves  on  part  of 
the  growth  of  the  wool.  When  dexterously  done  it  may 
also  be  made  to  aid  in  giving  the  sheep  that  appearance 
in  form  which  is  admired  in  the  show  ring.  The  opera- 
tion is  performed  by  leveling  the  wool  on  the  top  and 
bottom  lines  with  the  shears.  The  sides  should  then  be 
trimmed  off  sufficiently.  The  wool  on  the  breast  and 
hindquarters  are  left  overfull  at  the  first,  and  are  grad- 
ually molded  to  the  required  shapes  by  subsequent  trim- 
ming. Usually  about  half  the  length  of  the  fleece  is  taken 
off.-  Stubble  shearing  is  not  dishonest  when  it  violates 
no  rule  of  the  fair  association,  but  the  benefit  from  the 
practice  to  the  breeders  of  sheep  or  to  the  sheep  industry 
is  not  apparent.  Why,  then,  should  it  be  given  any  coun- 
tenance? In  the  fat  classes  length  of  wool  does  not  carry 
with  it  the  same  value  as  in  the  breeding  classes.  Very 
long  wool  is  not  really  desirable,  as  when  present  that 
plumpness  in  the  appearance  so  essential  in  fat  sheep  in 
the  show  ring  is  not  so  easily  maintained.  Because  of  this 
very  early  shearing  brings  with  it  no  real  benefit  to  such 
sheep.  Of  course,  they  should  be  shorn  before  the  weight 
of  the  fleece  becomes  oppressively  warm. 


282  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

3.  Some  care  is  necessary  with  reference  to  the  racks 
and  troughs  from  which  sheep  take  their  feed  when  they 
are  to  be  shown.     The  racks  must  not  allow  any  chaff 
or  other  fodder  to  lodge  about  the  wool  on  the  neck  of 
the  sheep.    The  height  of  the  feeding  trough  must  be  so 
adjusted,  and  also  of  the  board  over  which  the  sheep  feed 
on  the  side  of  the  same,  that  the  wool  will  not  be  dis- 
turbed on  the  underside  of  the  throat.    These  may  seem 
to  be  matters  of  but  little  moment,  and  yet  they  are  suffi- 
ciently important  in  themselves  to  determine  which  way 
the  award  will  go  in  a  close  contest.    For  the  proper  con- 
struction of  feed  racks  see  page  330. 

4.  While  attention  should  be  given  to  trimming  the 
feet  of  sheep  on  the  arable  farm,  for  whatsoever  purpose 
they  may  be  kept,  it  is  trebly  important  that  such  care 
shall  be  extended  to  the  feet  of  show  sheep.    The  feet  of 
the  latter  should  be  trimmed  at  least  once  a  year.    Such 
trimming  is  done  in  outline  as  follows :    The  toes  are  cut 
back  with  the  nippers  to  the  desired  length.    The  excess 
of  horn  is  then  trimmed  off.    Horn  is  in  excess  when  it 
grows  outward  so  that  it  cracks  or  breaks  on  the  outer 
edges  or  when  it  turns  under  the  outer  rim  of  the  sole. 
It  is  removed  by  the  aid  of  a  knife,  sharp  and  strong. 
The  sole  may  also  be  improved  by  a  slight  paring.    The 
trimming  is  best  done  some  time  before  the  sheep  are 
shown. 

5.  It  is  greatly  important  that  show  sheep  shall  come 
into  the  ring  at  what  is  termed  the  bloom  stage.  By  bloom 
is  meant  that  condition  in  which  the  show  animal  appears 
and  handles  at  its  best.  When  the  animal  has  reached  this 
stage  there  is  a  charm  of  finish  about  it  that  is  scarcely 
possible  of  complete  interpretation  by  the  use  of  language, 
but  it  is  readily  discerned  when  present  by  the  competent 
judge.    When  applied  to  the  appearance,  it  includes  not 
only  attractiveness  in  every  part  of  the  external  form, 
but  also  a  corresponding  gracefulness  and  ease  of  locomo- 
tion.   When  applied  to  finish,  it  means  that  condition  of 


GROWING  AND  FITTING  SHEEP  FOR  EXHIBITION        283 

flesh  which  most  completely  meets  the  requirements  with 
reference  to  quality,  distribution  and  firmness.  Short  of 
the  bloom  period  the  animal  has  not  attained  the  highest 
finish  of  which  it  is  capable.  Beyond  that  stage  the  bane- 
ful evidences  of  fitting  too  long  continued  become  at  once 
apparent.  Sheep  and  also  other  animals  can  only  be  held 
for  a  limited  period  at  the  bloom  stage ;  hence  the  impor- 
tance of  having  them  reach  it  just  at  the  fair  season.  To 
have  them  do  so  is  an  evidence  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
feeder.  This  should  be  most  carefully  considered  when 
show  sheep  are  to  be  carried  through  a  show  circuit  some- 
what prolonged.  They  should  be  made  to  enter  it  a  little 
short  of  the  stage  of  full  bloom.  They  may  then  be  car- 
ried on  to  full  bloom  before  the  circuit  has  been  completed 
and  before  the  evidences  of  retrogression  become  appar- 
ent. It  is  also  increasingly  difficult  to  bring  animals  into 
the  show  ring  during  succeeding  years  in  a  proper  condi- 
tion of  bloom.  The  time  comes  at  length  when  such  a  con- 
dition is  unattainable. 

6.  Unless  sheep  have  more  or  less  training  previously, 
they  will  not  assume  that  graceful  and  easy  attitude  in 
the  show  ring  which  is  so  pleasing  to  any  judge.  If  they 
are  restless  and  stand  with  the  feet  unduly  spread  or  too 
close  together,  the  chances  for  winning  are  proportion- 
ately discounted.  Restlessness  cannot  be  prevented  in  the 
absence  of  previous  handling.  The  spreading  of  the  feet 
forward  and  backward  causes  the  back  to  go  down.  When 
the  feet  are  drawn  together  the  back  will  be  hunched  up. 
In  such  an  instance  gentle  pressure  over  the  loin  with  the 
right  hand,  the  left  hand  being  underneath  the  jaw,  will 
correct  such  an  attitude.  Should  the  animal  stand,  as  it 
were,  under  protest,  as  though  trying  to  get  away  from 
the  attendant,  it  will  not  win  out  in  the  contest.  Should 
the  ground  be  uneven,  the  aim  should  be  to  place  the 
sheep  so  that  the  fore  part  will  be  on  the  higher  ground. 
Rams  may  be  shown  to  the  best  advantage  when  they 
are  trained  to  lead  on  the  halter  at  an  early  age.  When 


284  MANAGEMENT  AND    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

so  trained  they  will  not  hesitate  to  follow  the  shepherd 
through  a  crowd,  however  dense.  Should  the  award  be 
adverse,  the  exhibitor  should  meet  the  situation  calmly. 
In  the  lottery  of  judging — for  in  close  competition  it  is  a 
lottery,  in  a  sense — the  award,  though  in  some  instances 
scarcely  deserved,  may  go  the  other  way. 

7.  Should  the  suspicion  arise  in  the  mind  of  the  judge 
that  the  age  of  some  of  the  animals  before  him  has  been 
misrepresented,  he  can  usually  detect  the  same  by  examin- 
ing the  teeth.    They  do  not  always  show  equal  advance- 
ment in  growth  at  similar  ages,  but  the  progress  made  is 
so  nearly  similar  in  different  animals  that  the  liability  to 
mistake  on  the  part  of  a  good  judge  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum.   The  following  rules  relating  to  the  age  of  show 
sheep,  as  indicated  by  the  teeth,  have  been  adopted  by 
several  of  the  leading  fair  associations  of  Great  Britain : 
Sheep  having  their  central  permanent  incisors  cut  will  be 
considered  as  exceeding  the  age  of  10  months.     Sheep 
having  their  central  permanent  incisors  fully  up  will  be 
considered  as  exceeding  the  age  of  12  months.     Sheep 
having  their  third  pair  of  permanent  incisors  cut  will  be 
considered  as  exceeding  19  months.     Sheep  having  their 
third  pair  of  permanent  incisors  fully  up  and  the  tempo- 
rary  molars   shed  will   be  considered   as   exceeding  24 
months.     Sheep  having  their  corner  permanent  incisors 
well  up  and  showing  marks  of  wear  will  be  considered  as 
exceeding  36  months. 

8.  Stock  rams  which  have  been  exhibited  at  the  fairs 
and  are  again  to  be  exhibited  must  be  managed  with  great 
care  if  they  are  to  retain  their  breeding  powers.    Ordina- 
rily ram  lambs  shown  at  the  autumn  fairs  should  come  as 
soon  as  possible  after  January  1st.    To  have  them  come 
earlier  would  give  them  too  much  the  appearance  of  a 
shearling.    A  show  lamb  should  not  be  permitted  to  serve 
more  than  say  12  to  15  females  while  yet  in  the  lamb  form. 
A  shearling  ram  which  is  to  be  shown  again  should  not 
serve  more  than,  say,  24  to  30  females  while  yet  in  the 


GROWING  AND    FITTING    SHEEP    TOR    EXHIBITION        285 

shearling  form.  A  two-shear  ram  should  not  serve 
more  than,  say,  36  to  45  females  if  he  is  to  be  shown 
again.  A  ram  in  the  three-shear  form  may  be  used  freely 
in  service,  as  it  is  not  probable  that  he  will  go  back  into 
the  show  ring  again.  Fortunately  service  is  not  usually 
required  of  rams  until  the  fairs  for  the  season  are  over; 
hence  such  service  comes  at  a  time  when  it  is  legitimate 
to  cease  burdening  the  animal  with  flesh.  During  the  sea- 
son of  service  succulent  food  should  oe  freely  fed  to  such 
rams. 

9.  The  management  of  ewe  lambs  that  are  to  be 
shown  at  the  fairs  in  the  lamb  form  in  the  breeding  classes 
is  less  complex  than  that  relating  to  ram  lambs  which  are 
to  be  shown  and  also  used  in  service,  as  the  former  are 
not  bred  in  the  lamb  form.    Of  course,  they  should  not  be 
given  so  much  carbonaceous  food  when  fitting  them  for 
the  fairs  as  would  be  admissible  in  fitting  for  the  fat 
classes ;  nor  would  it  be  advisable  to  load  them  down  so 
heavily  with  flesh.     On  returning  from  the  fairs  if  they 
can  be  fed  freely  on  rape  they  may  not  need  much  grain 
so  long  as  such  food  lasts. 

10.  Blankets,  so  essential  in  preparing  sheep  for  ex- 
hibition and  while  making  the  circuit  of  the  fairs,  may  be 
made  from  such  material  as  burlap,  sacking  and  ducking. 
The  ducking  is  more  suitable  for  use  at  the  fairs  on  the 
score  of  appearance,  though  the  other  material  named  will 
be  amply  suitable  for  home  use.    They  should  be  made  so 
as  to  fasten  in  front  of  the  breast  with  buttons  or  straps, 
the  former  being  preferable.    At  the  thigh  a  strap  should 
be  fastened  to  the  blanket  in  front,  passed  inside  of  the 
thigh  when   in  place,  and  buttoned  or  buckled  to  the 
blanket  at  the  rear  of  the  thigh. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
WASHING  AND  SHEARING  SHEEP 

In  Chapter  XIV  the  following  phases  of  these  ques- 
tions are  discussed:  (i)  Washing  sheep  before  shearing; 
(2)  When  sheep  should  and  should  not  be  washed;  (3) 
The  different  methods  of  washing;  (4)  Handling  sheep 
when  washing  or  shearing  them;  (5)  Tagging  sheep 
when  washed;  (6)  Sheep  between  washing  and  shearing; 
(7)  The  time  and  place  for  shearing;  (8)  Methods  of 
shearing  sheep  ;  and  (9)  Handling  the  shorn  flock.  With- 
in the  last  two  or  three  decades  there  has  been  much  mod- 
ification in  the  methods  of  managing  sheep,  both  with  ref- 
erence to  washing  and  shearing.  Modifications  with  ref- 
erence to  the  former  have  been  brought  about  by  the 
transfer  of  manufacturing  wool  from  the  farm  home  to 
the  factory,  and  with  reference  to  the  latter  by  the  in- 
troduction of  shearing  by  machinery. 

Washing  sheep  before  shearing — The  following  are 
chief  among  the  arguments  that  favor  washing  sheep 
before  they  are  shorn:  (i)  It  is  virtually  necessary  to 
wash  them  when  the  wool  is  to  be  manufactured  at  home  ; 
(2)  the  shearing  is  more  easily  done  when  the  sheep  are 
washed;  (3)  there  is  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion ;  and  (4)  it  is  possible  to  estimate  more  correctly  the 
exact  value  of  the  wool. 

When  wool  is  to  be  manufactured  at  home,  the  neces- 
sity for  washing  it  is  based  on  the  fact  that  washing  the 
dirt  out  of  the  fleece  is  much  more  easily  accomplished 
while  it  is  yet  on  the  sheep's  back  than  after  it  has  been 
removed.  The  manipulation  of  the  wool  so  as  to  remove 
the  dirt  is  accomplished  much  easier  when  the  fleece  rests 
on  a  firm  surface,  which  helps  to  hold  it  in  place,  such  as 
is  presented  by  the  body  of  the  sheep.  It  is  based  on  the 


WASHING  AND   SHEARING   SHEEP  287 

further  fact  that  the  wool  is  left  in  better  condition  after 
it  is  washed  when  on  the  back  of  the  sheep.  Where  thus 
washed  time  is  given  for  the  yolk  which  lubricates  the 
wool  to  rise  in  the  same  to  add  to  its  luster.  If  the  wool  is 
washed  after  it  is  shorn,  the  bright  appearance  is  so  far  lost. 

The  difference  in  the  ease  with  which  sheep  may  be 
shorn  when  they  are  washed  may  not  be  much  in  some 
instances,  as  when  there  is  not  much  dirt  in  the  wool.  In 
other  instances  the  difference  may  be  material,  for  the 
reason  that  the  fleece  contains  much  dirt. 

The  saving  in  the  cost  of  transportation  when  wool 
is  washed  is  frequently  material.  The  saving  in  the  trans- 
portation of  washed  wool  results,  first,  from  the  removal 
of  dirt  from  the  wool,  and  second,  from  the  removal  of  an 
excess  of  yolk.  Frequently  the  excess  of  yolk  is  greater 
than  the  amount  of  other  foreign  substances  in  the  wool. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  Merino  wool.  Medium  wools 
usually  contain  a  less  amount  of  yolk  than  fine  wools, 
and  long  wools  a  less  amount  than  medium  wools.  The 
shrinkage  in  the  scouring  of  fine  wools  of  good  quality 
when  washed  is  about  50  per  cent ;  when  not  washed,  it 
has  been  put  at  somewhere  near  70  per  cent.  The  objec- 
tion to  the  shipping  of  wool  unwashed,  arising  from  cost, 
becomes  stronger  as  the  distance  from  market  increases. 
Under  some  conditions  it  is,  of  course,  of  but  little 
account. 

When  wool  is  washed  it  is  easier  to  adjust  the  price 
that  should  be  paid  for  wool  of  the  same  grade.  The 
quality  in  such  instances  is  so  far  gauged  by  the  charac- 
ter of  the  washing. 

When  the  wool  is  unwashed,  no  two  fleeces  may  be 
exactly  alike  in  the  amount  of  foreign  substances  which 
they  contain,  and  the  same  is  true  in  a  much  greater  de- 
gree of  wools  obtained  from  different  flocks.  To  pay  the 
same  price  for  such  wools  would  not  be  just,  and  to  dif- 
ferentiate the  price  based  on  the  amount  of  foreign  sub- 
stances which  the  wool  contains  is  very  difficult. 


288  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

Prominent  among  the  arguments  that  favor  shear- 
ing sheep  without  washing  them  are  the  following:  (i) 
When  shorn  unwashed,  the  shearing  may  be  done  earlier 
than  when  washing  precedes  the  shearing;  (2)  when  foot 
rot  is  present,  washing  is  a  sure  means  of  distributing 
the  same;  and  (3)  washing  frequently  harms  the  sheep 
and  also  those  who  wash  them. 

When  sheep  are  shorn  unwashed,  they  can  be  shorn 
as  early  as  may  be  desired.  When  washed  before  shorn, 
it  is  necessary  to  wait  for  the  water  to  warm  before  the 
sheep  are  washed  when  any  considerable  number  are  to 
be  thus  washed.  Of  course,  it  would  be  possible  to  heat 
the  water  when  only  a  small  number  are  to  be  shorn. 

Experience  has  shown  that  if  sheep  are  not  washed 
until  the  water  in  brooks  or  ponds  becomes  warm  enough 
to  admit  of  washing  them,  that  they  suffer  from  an  excess 
of  heat  which  so  far  interferes  with  and  hinders  the  high- 
est increase  that  may  be  obtained  from  them.  Especially 
is  this  true  of  sheep  that  are  being  fattened  and  of  dams 
that  are  nursing  their  lambs,  and  it  is  also  true  of  the 
lambs.  The  increase  made  by  sheep  that  are  being 
pushed  on  stimulating  foods  for  the  market  is  seriously 
hindered  by  allowing  them  to  suffer  from  the  excessive 
heat  which  results  from  carrying  a  fleece  which  is  no 
longer  necessary  to  protect  them.  Likewise  ewes  that 
are  suckling  lambs  can  furnish  more  milk  for  them  when 
not  burdened  with  a  heavy  fleece  of  wool. 

When  foot  rot  is  present  in  any  given  locality,  the 
danger  is  imminent  that  it  will  be  contracted  by  and  dis- 
tributed in  flocks  that  occupy  pens  that  are  used  in  com- 
mon to  confine  sheep  that  are  being  washed.  Even  though 
the  different  flocks  should  occupy  different  pens  when 
being  washed  at  a  common  washing  place,  it  is  not  easily 
possible  to  prevent  them  from  treading  on  common 
ground  and  thus  contracting  the  disease. 

The  process  of  washing  involves  the  handling  of  the 
sheep  more  or  less.  It  also  involves  handling  them  be- 


WASHING   AND  SHEARING   SHEEP  289 

times  when  they  are  easily  injured,  as  when  they  are  with 
lamb.  It  is  possible  to  handle  them  without  injury,  but 
in  rough  hands  they  will  suffer  more  or  less  harm.  They 
resist  the  effort  to  take  them  into  the  water,  and  if  pulled 
in  by  rough  hands  they  will  certainly  take  harm. 

The  person  who  washes  sheep  may  also  incur  some 
hazard.  The  water  may  still  be  cold  when  the  washing 
season  arrives,  and  when  it  is  there  is  hazard  to  the 
washer,  especially  when  the  number  to  be  washed  is  large. 
Remaining  in  the  water  for  a  long  period  at  such  a  time 
is  attended  with  no  little  hazard,  especially  to  those  who 
have  become  somewhat  advanced  in  life. 

Until  within  the  last  two  or  three  decades,  the  prac- 
tice of  washing  sheep  was  very  common.  In  many  com- 
munities it  was  universal.  It  was  necessitated  by  the  cus- 
tom of  spinning  the  wool  at  home  and  of  manufacturing 
it  into  cloth.  The  manufacture  of  wool  is  now  almost  en- 
tirely relegated  to  the  factories,  hence  the  washing  of 
sheep  prior  to  shearing  them  is  fast  becoming  obsolete. 
It  is  now  largely  confined  to  long  wooled  sheep  that  are 
to  be  exhibited  at  the  fairs.  In  some  instances  the  wash- 
ing of  lambs  of  the  long  wooled  breeds  with  water  and 
soap  in  the  early  autumn  is  practiced.  The  object  is  to 
loosen  the  tangles  in  the  wool,  to  add  luster  to  it  and  to 
improve  the  general  appearance  of  the  fleece.  Long 
wooled  sheep  are  always  thus  washed  before  they  are 
shown  in  the  autumn,  and  lambs  are  sometimes  washed  in 
good  flocks,  even  when  they  are  not  to  be  shorn. 

When  sheep  should  and  should  not  be  washed — It 
would  seem  correct  to  say  that  sheep  should  not  be 
washed,  as  a  rule,  except  when  the  wool  is  to  be  manu- 
factured at  home,  or  in  the  case  of  certain  breeds  that  are 
to  be  shown.  Notwithstanding  the  objections  to  shearing 
and  transporting  wools  in  the  unwashed  form,  the  prac- 
tice of  so  handling  it  is  now  almost  universal.  It  has  be- 
come so  doubtless  because  the  benefit  that  accrues  from 
handling  wools  thus  has  been  found  greater  than  from 


290  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

handling  it  by  the  other  method.  The  improved  methods 
of  scouring  which  science  has  produced  has  contributed 
to  the  change.  The  decadence  of  the  industry  of  manu- 
facturing of  wool  at  home  is  in  some  ways  to  be  regretted, 
but  in  the  end  the  change  will  doubtless  contribute  to  the 
advance  of  a  high  civilization. 

The  washing  of  show  sheep,  as  previously  intimated, 
is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  long  wooled  breeds. 
Why  it  should  be  thus  is  to  some  extent  the  outcome  of 
fashion,  but  the  fashion  probably  rests  on  a  sensible  founda- 
tion. That  washing  does  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  fleece  of 
the  long  wooled  sheep  cannot  be  questioned. 

That  it  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  middle  wooled 
breeds,  particularly  those  of  the  dark-faced  types,  may  be 
questioned.  That  it  does  not  add  to  the  beauty  of  the 
fleece  in  the  fine  wooled  breeds  is  a  foregone  conclusion. 

The  time  for  washing  sheep  will,  of  course,  vary. 
When  small  flocks  are  to  be  washed  in  a  tank,  the  water 
being  artificially  warmed,  they  may  be  washed  at  almost 
any  time  desired.  When  large  flocks  are  to  be  washed, 
the  washing  is  deferred  until  the  water  in  the  streams  and 
ponds  or  lakes  in  which  the  sheep  are  washed  has  become 
warm  enough  to  bring  little  or  no  hazard  to  those  who 
wash  them  or  to  the  sheep.  When  the  water  is  so  warm 
that  it  brings  no  hazard  to  those  who  do  the  washing, 
it  will  certainly  bring  no  hazard  to  the  sheep.  In  the 
northern  states  sheep  are  not  usually  washed  in  a  large 
way  before  the  end  of  May.  Going  southward,  the  season 
may  be  continually  advanced  until  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is 
reached.  The  character  of  the  season  may  cause  a  varia- 
tion of  10  to  14  days  in  the  usual  time  for  washing.  In 
some  seasons  it  will  be  advanced  and  in  some  retarded. 
But  in  no  instances  does  it  take  place  so  early  as  to  pre- 
clude the  sheep  from  taking  harm  through  carrying  an 
excessive  weight  of  fleece  after  the  days  have  begun  to 
wax  warm. 


WASHING   AND   SHEARING   SHEEP  29! 

The  different  methods  of  washing — Three  methods  of 
washing  sheep  have  been  adopted.  By  the  first  they  are 
washed  in  a  tank;  by  the  second  in  a  brook,  pond  or 
lake ;  and  by  the  third  beneath  an  artificial  waterfall.  All 
of  these,  save  the  first,  are  being  practiced  to  a  less  ex- 
tent as  the  years  go  by,  and  for  the  reason  that  sheep 
are  now  being  washed  to  a  much  less  extent  before  shear- 
ing than  formerly.  Where  sheep  were  kept  in  large  bands 
the  plan  was  sometimes  adopted  of  swimming  them  back 
and  forth  several  times  across  a  running  stream.  This 
method,  accomplished  by  the  shepherd  through  the  aid 
of  dogs,  was,  of  course,  an  imperfect  method  of  washing, 
but  it  was  only  practiced  on  sheep  that  grazed  on  pastures 
on  which  the  wool  was  not  much  liable  to  be  soiled  in  a 
marked  degree. 

Sheep  are  now  more  commonly  washed  in  a  tank  or 
box  than  by  any  other  method,  as  when  they  are  washed 
it  is  rather  to  prepare  them  for  being  shown  at  fairs  than 
to  cleanse  the  wool  previous  to  the  shearing.  A  home- 
made box  made  watertight  will  serve  the  purpose,  but  a 
galvanized  tank  such  as  may  now  be  readily  obtained 
from  various  manufacturers  of  the  same  is  probably  not 
more  costly  and  it  will  last  much  longer.  The  same  tank 
may  be  used  for  dipping,  for  ticks  or  scab,  where  the  flock 
is  small.  When  sheep  are  thus  washed,  the  water  should 
be  brought  to  a  tepid  condition  should  the  season  of  the 
year  call  for  warming  it  thus.  Some  kind  of  pure  soap 
added  to  the  water  will  greatly  aid  in  removing  foreign 
matters  from  the  wool.  It  will  also  dissolve  and  remove 
yolk  scales  that  may  have  accumulated.  Subsequent 
to  the  washing,  the  wool  should  be  treated  with  clean 
water  so  as  to  remove  the  soap,  as,  unremoved,  it  would 
injure  its  appearance.  Two  persons  will  handle  the 
sheep  that  are  thus  being  washed  much  more  readily  than 
one,  especially  when  they  are  large.  They  should  be  clad 
in  waterproof  clothing.  The  water  in  the  box  or  tank 
should  be  renewed  occasionally,  as  it  soon  becomes  so 


MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

soiled  as  to  be  unsuited  to  further  cleansing  of  the  wool. 
When  sheep  are  washed  in  a  stream,  pond  or  lake, 
the  method  followed  in  each  instance  is  virtually  the 
same.  The  following  are  prominent  among  the  requisites 
for  each  washing:  (i)  A  pen  or  inclosure  adjacent  to  the 
water  in  which  to  inclose  the  sheep ;  (2)  water  deep 
enough  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  touching  the  bottom 
with  their  feet  and  plentiful  in  supply;  (3)  a  shore  line  of 
sand  or  gravel,  and  freedom  from  mud  or  mire  underneath 
the  water.  The  inclosure  may  be  made  of  rails,  poles  or 
hurdles.  Hurdles  such  as  are  used  in  grazing  sheep  (see 
page  13)  are  more  suitable  than  the  other  materials 
named,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be 
moved  and  the  quickness  with  which  they  may  be  put  in 
place.  The  ends  of  the  two  sides  should  come  down 
against  the  water,  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  getting 
around  them  and  thus  escaping  from  the  inclosure.  Un- 
less the  water  is  deep  enough  to  float  the  sheep  they  can- 
not be  handled  to  the  best  advantage  by  the  person  wash- 
ing them.  As  soon  as  the  water  causes  them  to  swim  they 
are  immediately  under  the  control  of  the  washer  who  can 
move  them  about  in  the  water  with  but  little  effort.  When 
water  thus  deep  comes  up  against  the  shore  where  the 
pen  faces  the  water  the  sheep  are  at  once  under  control 
when  they  enter  the  same,  so  that  wading  them  out  into 
deep  water,  which  they  so  much  resist,  is  not  necessary. 
The  necessity  for  a  sandy  or  gravelly  shore  where  the 
sheep  enter  and  leave  the  water  will  be  at  once  apparent. 
Especially  where  the  sheep  leave  the  water  is  this  impor- 
tant, as  wading  through  mud  or  mire  would  leave  the 
sheep  in  such  condition  when  they  reach  the  land,  that 
they  would  need  to  be  washed  again.  Should  the  bottom 
where  the  sheep  are  washed  be  covered  with  soft  mud,  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  wash  wool  clean  there,  because 
of  the  fouling  of  the  water  through  the  rising  of  mud 
particles.  A  plentiful  supply  of  water  is  helpful,  as  it 
does  not  foul  readily,  but  it  should  not  be  so  deep  as  to 


WASHING   AND   SHEARING   SHEEP  293 

interfere  with  the  free  action  of  the  arms  of  those  engaged 
in  doing  the  work.  More  or  less  current  in  the  water  is 
distinctly  helpful,  as  it  floats  away  the  dirt  removed  from 
the  fleece. 

When  sheep  are  washed  beneath  a  waterfall,  the 
requisites  are  about  the  same  as  when  they  are  washed  in 
a  stream  or  lake,  except  that  a  dep'th  of  water  such  as  will 
float  the  sheep  is  not  so  necessary.  They  are  led  out  un- 
der the  falling  water,  and  the  dirt  in  the  wool,  when  it  is 
properly  manipulated,  is  quickly  carried  away.  Years 
ago  so  important  was  it  considered  to  have  a  good  place 
for  washing  sheep  that  running  streams  were  sometimes 
dammed  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  furnish  a  waterfall 
adapted  to  such  a  use. 

Handling  sheep  when  washing  or  shearing  them — 
The  necessity  for  handling  sheep  with  gentleness  while 
washing  and  shearing  them  should  never  be  forgotten. 
The  sheep  is  a  timid  animal  and  is  easily  injured  by  rough 
handling.  When  the  wool  is  the  only  medium  used  in 
handling  sheep,  they  will  invariably  suffer  injury  at  the 
hands  of  those  who  handle  them.  When  grasped  by  the 
wool  they  invariably  struggle  to  get  away.  The  measure 
of  the  struggling  is  the  timidity  of  the  sheep,  the  extent 
to  which  they  have  been  accustomed  to  handling  and 
the  roughness  or  gentleness  of  the  handling.  When  sheep 
are  grasped  by  the  wool  and  struggle  to  get  away,  and 
are  then  slaughtered  and  the  skin  removed,  the  inner  side 
of  the  skin  underneath  where  the  wool  was  grasped  will 
be  reddened  with  the  blood  that  has  centered  in  blood 
vessels  there.  Its  presence  bears  testimony  to  the  extent 
of  the  injury  done. 

Sheep  may  be  most  readily  caught  by  the  aid  of  a 
crook.  This  means  a  rod  of  several  feet  in  width,  a  piece 
of  metal  attached  to  the  farther  end.  which  is  bent  back- 
wards so  as  to  form  a  crook.  When  used  in  catching 
sheep  it  is  thrust  forward  and  quickly  drawn  backward 
so  as  to  catch  a  leg,  usually  a  hind  leg,  within  the  crook. 


294  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

This  renders  the  sheep  powerless  to  get  away  until  it  can 
be  grasped  by  the  hand.  Long  practice  will  make  the 
shepherd  very  dexterous  in  using  this  aid  in  catching 
sheep.  Its  use  is  now  mainly  confined  to  large  flocks. 

When  the  attempt  is  made  to  catch  sheep  by  hand 
within  an  inclosure,  a  number  of  them,  and  in  some  in- 
stances all  the  flock,  will  rush  into  a  corner.  The  person 
who  is  seeking  out  one  of  them  should  follow,  keeping  his 
eye  closely  on  the  sheep  that  is  to  be  caught.  He  then 
rushes  forward  and  grasps  it  by  placing  one  hand  under- 
neath the  neck  at  the  throat  or  in  front  of  the  breast  and 
the  other  hand  at  the  tailhead  or  buttock.  The  sheep  is 
then  in  his  power  should  it  struggle  to  move  forward  or 
backward.  In  some  instances  the  sheep  is  grasped  at 
first  by  the  hind  leg  with  one  hand,  and  held  until  the  free 
hand,  which  is  usually  the  left  one,  is  reached  forward  in 
front  of  the  breast  of  the  sheep.  Should  a  sheep  be 
grasped  by  the  wool  over  the  hips  it  will  lunge  forward 
to  get  away,  and  this  will  result  in  injury  to  the  part  thus 
grasped. 

When  holding  sheep,  especially  those  that  are  restless 
or  refractory,  they  should  be  held  by  placing  one  hand, 
usually  the  left  one,  so  as  to  grasp  the  jaw  underneath 
and  well  forward.  The  fingers  or  some  of  them  are 
pushed  upward  into  the  soft  parts  underneath  the  tongue, 
the  thumb  remaining  on  the  outside  of  the  jaw.  The 
right  hand  is  thus  left  free  to  use  as  occasion  may  call 
for.  With  the  left  hand  thus  placed  and  the  right  hand 
at  the  tailhead,  a  refractory  sheep  may  be  moved  forward 
should  this  be  desired.  The  parts  underneath  the  jaw 
are  sensitive,  hence  the  pressure  of  the  fingers  there 
should  never  be  more  than  occasion  calls  for. 

Sheep  may  be  taught  to  lead  the  same  as  other  ani- 
mals. This  is  usually  necessary  only  in  the  case  of  rams, 
more  especially  such  of  them  as  are  to  be  shown.  They 
will  submit  readily  to  such  teachings,  but  it  is  most  effec- 
tive when  they  are  thus  taught  while  young.  Out  on  the 


WASHING   AND   SHEARING   SHEEP  295 

range  nearly  all  the  handling  of  sheep,  or  rather  the  man- 
agement of  the  same,  is  done  by  the  aid  of  dogs.  The 
expertness  to  which  dogs  may  be  trained  in  thus  render- 
ing aid  would  seem  in  some  instances  to  be  almost  more 
than  such  as  results  from  mere  animal  sagacity. 

When  sheep  are  being  washed  rough  handling  should 
be  most  carefully  avoided.  This  should  apply  to  the 
handling,  not  only  while  the  sheep  are  being  put  into  the 
water,  but  also  while  in  the  water  and  while  being  led 
out  of  the  same.  The  greatest  hazard  occurs  while  the 
sheep  are  being  led  into  the  water.  They  strenuously  re- 
sist being  put  into  it.  Then  it  is  that  they  are  most  in 
danger  of  being  harmed.  They  should  be  brought  for- 
ward, as  described  above,  to  the  water's  edge.  In  the 
same  way  the  washer  leads  them  forward  until  the  water 
is  beyond  their  depth.  To  drag  them  forward  by  grasp- 
ing the  wool  above  the  shoulders,  their  feet  being  in- 
stinctively braced  against  such  dragging,  is  simply  cruel. 

When  the  sheep  are  beyond  their  depth,  the  danger 
from  harm  for  the  time  being  is  practically  over.  They 
are  then  virtually  powerless  in  the  hands  of  the  washer. 
The  wool  virtually  floats  them.  The  washer  grasps  the 
wool  between  his  hands  and  presses  it  together.  This  he 
continues  to  do  until  the  water  is  no  more  discolored  as 
the  result  of  such  squeezing.  He  goes  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  body  in  this  way.  In  his  hands  the  sheep 
may  be  readily  turned  so  as  to  bring  the  wool  on  any  part 
of  the  body  within  easy  reach  of  the  hands  of  the  washer. 
It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  no  sheep  should  pass 
the  washer's  hands  until  its  fleece  is  thoroughly  cleansed. 

When  the  washing  is  completed,  it  may  answer  in 
some  instances,  as  when  the  sheep  are  young  and  strong 
and  the  shore  is  firm  and  clean,  to  head  them  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  landing  place  and  to  allow  them  to  swim 
ashore  unattended.  The  sight  of  the  sheep  grazing  that 
have  been  washed  will  cause  them  to  try  and  reach  them. 
But  should  the  sheep  be  old  or  feeble  and  the  landing 


296  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

place  not  all  that  could  be  desired,  the  washer  should 
accompany  them  until  they  are  entirely  out  of  the  water. 
It  may  be  necessary  for  him  to  hold  them  for  a  few  sec- 
onds, as  should  they  attempt  to  walk  at  once  the  weight 
of  water  in  the  fleece  may  cause  them  to  fall. 

Tagging  sheep  when  washed — Tagging  means  re- 
moving from  the  sheep  wool  that  may  have  become  so 
mixed  with  excrement  that  it  hangs  in  clots  around  the 
buttock,  especially  that  portion  of  it  around  and  under- 
neath the  tail.  This  condition  results  from  a  laxness  of 
the  bowels,  usually  caused  by  feeding  too  freely  on  succu- 
lent grasses  while  these  are  yet  soft  and  full  of  succulence. 
Merinos,  and  especially  the  lambs  subsequently  to  wean- 
ing, are  much  liable  to  injury  from  soiling  with  urine  in 
hot  weather  in  both  males  and  females.  These  condi- 
tions, if  allowed  to  increase  assume  in  some  instances  an 
aggravated  form,  insomuch  that  the  wool  covering  the 
buttock,  or  soiled  by  urine,  becomes  a  mass  of  filth,  in 
which  maggots  may  breed.  This  may  be  prevented,  in 
part  at  least,  by  cutting  off  the  locks  of  wool  thus  con- 
taminated as  soon  as  such  contamination  appears.  If  this 
has  not  been  given  attention  sooner,  it  should  be  done  in 
the  inclosure  from  which  the  sheep  are  taken  to  be 
washed.  The  better  plan,  however,  is  to  remove  the  locks 
of  wool  thus  contaminated  as  soon  as  such  soiling  of  the 
wool  is  noticed.  This  will  aid  much  in  preventing  the 
soiling  of  the  wool  adjacent.  An  old  pair  of  shears,  well 
sharpened,  may  be  advantageously  used  in  removing  the 
soiled  locks  of  wool.  But  tagging  also  refers  to  the  re- 
moval of  locks  that  may  have  been  loosened  from  some 
cause  from  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  which,  if  not  re- 
moved, will  ultimately  fall  off  and  be  lost. 

As  already  intimated,  the  best  time  to  begin  the 
tagging  is  as  soon  as  it  appears.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
repeat  the  tagging  should  additional  soiling  occur.  When 
aggravated  and  prolonged,  the  better  plan  would  be  to 
confine  the  sheep  and  put  them  on  a  dry  diet  until  the 


WASHING  AND  SHEARING   SHEEP  297 

purging  is  arrested.  When  tagging  is  done  at  the  wash- 
ing season,  additional  help  will  be  called  for,  so  as  to  avoid 
delay  in  delivering  the  sheep  to  the  washers. 

The  tags  thus  obtained  may  be  so  incorporated  with 
filth  as  to  be  practically  worthless.  In  other  instances  it 
may  prove  profitable  to  remove  the  filth  and  sell  the  tags. 
The  filth  may  be  removed  by  soaking  the  tags  for  a  time 
sufficiently  long  to  soften  the  manure  adhering  to  them, 
and  to  dissolve  it  so  that  it  can  be  removed  by  one  or 
more  washings.  Soap  will,  of  course,  aid  in  the  dissolv- 
ing and  cleansing  process.  The  price  paid  for  such  will, 
of  course,  be  lower  than  for  other  wool. 

Sheep  between  washing  and  shearing — The  interval 
between  washing  and  shearing  will  be  influenced  to  some 
extent  by  the  character  of  the  weather.  If  the  weather 
is  dry  and  bright,  one  week  should  suffice  between  the 
time  of  washing  and  shearing.  Under  other  conditions, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  defer  the  shearing  so  as  to  cover 
an  interval  considerably  longer.  The  interval  between 
washing  and  shearing  should  not  be  unduly  prolonged, 
lest  the  wool  should  become  more  or  less  filled  with  for- 
eign substances.  This  would,  of  course,  so  far  detract 
from  the  benefit  resulting  from  washing. 

The  objects  in  thus  deferring  the  shearing  for  several 
days  subsequent  to  the  washing,  are,  first,  to  allow  the 
fleece  to  dry,  and,  second,  to  give  time  for  the  yolk  to  ex- 
tend to  the  tips  of  the  wool  fiber.  This  will  add  greatly 
to  the  luster  of  the  wool.  Should  the  wool  be  shorn  while 
yet  overmoist,  the  labor  of  shearing  is  less  pleasant,  and 
the  hazard  is  incurred  that  injury  will  come  to  the  wool 
through  the  excess  of  moisture  which  it  contains.  More 
or  less  mold  would  result,  and  also  discoloration,  which 
would  proportionately  discount  the  price. 

Between  the  period  of  washing  and  shearing,  the 
sheep  should  be  grazed  on  clean  pastures,  otherwise  the 
benefit  from  washing  the  fleece  may  be  much  neutralized. 
In  newly  settled  areas,  where  logs  that  have  been  charred 


298  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

abound  in  the  pastures,  the  newly  washed  sheep  may  rub 
against  these,  and  so  blacken  the  fleece  externally.  As 
the  weather  is  usually  more  or  less  warm  at  the  washing 
season,  sheep  are  prone  to  lie  down  amid  the  dust  on  the 
highway  and  also  on  other  bare  ground  to  which  they 
may  have  access.  Because  of  this,  the  wisdom  of  keep- 
ing them  away  from  such  influences  and  indeed  from  all 
contaminating  influences  will  at  once  be  apparent. 

The  time  and  place  for  shearing — The  following  are 
chief  among  the  influences  that  bear  upon  the  time  of 
shearing:  (i)  The  character  of  the  climate;  (2)  the  pro- 
tection that  can  be  furnished  to  the  sheep;  and  (3)  the 
object  for  which  they  are  being  kept. 

In  mild  latitudes  sheep  may,  of  course,  be  shorn  pro- 
portionately earlier  than  in  those  that  are  cold,  and  in  dry 
climates  earlier  than  in  those  that  are  characterized  by 
much  rainfall.  The  necessity  for  early  shearing  is  pres- 
ent in  a  much  greater  degree  in  warm  climates,  as  when 
unshorn  the  sheep  are  burdened  by  the  weight  and  heat 
of  the  fleece  after  the  weather  becomes  warm. 

Where  ample  protection  can  be  furnished  for  the 
sheep,  should  the  weather  turn  cold  after  they  are  shorn, 
the  time  of  shearing  may  be  much  advanced.  When  the 
protection  is  sufficient  they  may  be  shorn  at  any  time 
during  the  winter,  as  for  instance,  when  they  are  being 
prepared  for  exhibition,  and  the  rules  of  the  fairs  where 
they  are  to  be  shown  do  not  prohibit  such  early  shearing. 
Sheep  thus  shorn  may  be  retained  most  readily  at  even 
temperatures  in  a  basement.  When  shorn  early,  it  is,  of 
course,  necessary  to  keep  the  sheep  in  protected  sheds 
during  unpropitious  weather.  When  exposed  to  temper- 
atures too  low  after  the  wool  has  been  removed,  the  dis- 
comfort resulting  is  indicated  by  the  humped  attitude 
which  the  animal  assumes. 

When  sheep  are  to  be  shown,  it  is  customary  to  shear 
them  earlier  than  the  normal  season  for  shearing,  unless 
the  rules  of  the  fairs  at  which  they  are  shown  prohibit 


WASHING   AND   SHEARING   SHEEP  299 

such  shearing.  When  they  are  being  fattened  for  spring 
sale,  they  may  be  shorn  earlier  than  under  other  condi- 
tions. The  heat  induced  by  the  fattening  foods  fed  will 
result  in  much  discomfort  to  the  sheep,  unless  the  wool 
is  removed,  and  discomfort  always  hinders  gains  where 
it  is  present. 

When  sheep  are  washed  they  cannot  be  shorn  so 
early  as  when  shorn  unwashed,  as  the  washing  cannot  be 
done  in  a  large  way  until  the  water  in  which  they  are  to 
be  washed  becomes  warm.  WThen  shorn  unwashed,  the 
time  of  .shearing  may  be  advanced  from  five  to  eight  weeks. 

If  shorn  unwashed,  the  ordinary  flock  may  be  shorn 
as  early  as  April  I  in  the  northern  states,  where  ample 
protection  may  be  furnished  to  the  shorn  sheep.  Usually, 
however,  the  shearing  is  deferred  to  a  period  a  little  later. 
The  shearing  is  more  frequently  deferred  to  the  middle 
of  April,  or  even  to  the  last  half  of  the  month,  but  it  is 
done  proportionately  earlier  in  states  that  lie  southward. 
When  the  sheep  are  washed,  they  are  seldom  shorn  in  the 
northern  states  earlier  than  late  May  or  early  June. 

Sheep  that  are  being  fattened  may  usually  be  shorn 
with  advantage  fully  two  weeks  earlier  than  sheep  kept 
for  breeding  uses.  The  necessity  for  providing  exercise 
for  them  is  not  present  as  it  is  with  breeding  flocks,  hence 
after  they  are  shorn  they  may  be  kept  in  the  sheds  all  the 
time  without  harm  should  the  weather  conditions  make 
such  confinement  advisable. 

In  some  instances  sheep  have  been  shorn  twice  a 
year;  such  shearing  has  usually  been  done  in  an  experi- 
mental way.  The  increase  has  not  been  such  as  to  justify 
such  shearing,  especially  in  northern  areas.  It  would 
seem  probable  that  such  shearing  would  be  distinctly  ad- 
vantageous in  warm  areas,  as,  for  instance,  the  southern 
states,  but  this  problem  does  not  seem  to  have  been  fully 
worked  out  there.  The  season  for  the  first  shearing  would 
be  early,  probably  as  early  as  March  1st,  and  for  the  sec- 
ond shearing,  about  six  months  later. 


3OO  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

Wherever  sheep  are  shorn  it  should  be  under  cover, 
to  protect  the  shearers  and  also  to  protect  the  sheep,  espe- 
cially when  the  shearing  is  done  in  warm  weather.  Then 
they  should  be  housed  in  quarters  adjacent  to  the  shear- 
ing floor,  so  as  to  be  convenient  to  the  shearers.  They 
should  thus  be  penned  in  lots,  sufficient  to  supply  the 
shearers  for  the  day,  and  they  should  be  thus  congregated 
when  free  from  dew  and  rain.  They  should  be  kept  in 
clean  quarters,  to  prevent  the  soiling  of  their  wool.  When 
the  shearing  continues  for  successive  days,  much  attention 
must  be  given  to  keeping  the  quarters  clean,  and  the 
necessity  for  such  watchfulness  is  greater  when  the  sheep 
have  been  washed. 

When  a  small  band  of  sheep  has  been  washed,  they 
may  be  readily  penned  for  shearing  in  the  end  of  a  lane. 
Green  grass  will  answer  for  a  shearing  floor,  and  a  few 
boards  extended  across  the  corner  or  nook  of  the  fences 
that  come  together  there,  will  form  a  sufficient  protection 
for  the  shearers. 

Methods  of  shearing  sheep — Sheep  are  shorn  by  hand 
and  by  the  aid  of  machinery.  Machine  shearing,  which  is 
of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  is  destined  to  sup- 
plant hand  shearing  wherever  shearing  is  to  be  done  in  a 
large  way.  It  not  only  does  the  work  more  expeditiously, 
but  it  does  better  work  and  neater  than  is  done  by  the 
average  shearer,  and  when  sheep  are  shorn  in  large  lots, 
it  is  done  more  cheaply  than  when  done  with  the  shears. 
Two  methods  of  hand  shearing  are  followed.  One  of 
these  is  known  as  the  long  method  and  the  other  as  the 
round  method. 

When  sheep  are  shorn  by  the  long  method,  the 
shearer  begins  by  removing  the  wool  from  the  head.  He 
then  opens  the  wool  on  the  throat  and  shears  from  the 
underline  of  the  same  to  the  top  of  the  neck.  This  is  con- 
tinued until  a  point  is  reached  at  or  near  the  shoulder 
blade.  The  position  of  the  sheep  is  then  reversed,  and  the 
wool  is  then  removed  from  the  other  side  of  the  neck.  A 


WASHING   AND   SHEARING   SHEEP  3OI 

series  of  rings  is  thus  made,  extending  from  the  head  to 
the  shoulder  blade.  The  sheep  is  then  laid  on  its  side. 
The  wool  is  then  shorn  from  shoulder  to  buttock  on  one 
side.  The  cuts  made  are  similar  and  parallel  and  of  equal 
width.  The  sheep  is  then  turned  over  and  the  wool  is 
removed  from  the  other  side,  shearing  from  buttock  to 
stern.  A  good  shearer  keeps  the  shears  gnawing,  as  it 
were,  through  the  wool  rather  than  making  distinct  cuts 
each  time  the  shear  handles  are  pressed  toward  each 
other.  When  the  shears  are  thus  used,  the  lines  left  are 
more  evenly  made  and  the  hazard  of  cutting  the  skin  is 
reduced. 

When  the  sheep  are  shorn  by  the  round  method,  the 
animal  is  placed  on  its  buttock.  The  wool  is  first  removed 
from  the  brisket  downward  to  the  fore-flank.  It  is  then 
shorn  from  right  to  left  clear  across  the  belly.  The  wool 
on  the  entire  belly  thus  removed  hangs  on  the  left  side  of 
the  fleece.  The  wool  is  then  opened  up  on  the  under  side 
of  the  neck,  and  beginning  at  the  ears,  the  neck  and  body 
are  shorn  by  running  the  shears  around  to  the  ridge  of 
the  topline.  The  sheep  is  then  turned  over  and  the  right 
side  is  shorn  in  the  same  way.  Each  line  made  by  the 
shears  should  be  at  right  angles  with  the  topline.  Sheep 
thus  shorn  have  a  zebra-like  appearance,  which  is  very 
attractive.  Fat  sheep  have  a  very  neat  appearance  when 
shorn  thus,  but  lean  sheep  look  best  when  shorn  by  the 
long  method.  An  expert  shearer  will  never  cut  the  wool 
twice,  that  is,  he  will  not,  even  when  shearing  past  the 
spinal  column,  point  the  shears  so  high  that  any  of  the 
wool  will  have  to  be  clipped  again.  Clipping  twice  means 
waste  of  wool. 

When  sheep  are  shorn  by  machinery,  some  kind  of 
power  is  necessary  to  drive  the  clippers  used  when  at 
work.  When  done  in  a  large  way,  a  long  line  of  shaft- 
ing is  put  in  place,  so  that  many  shearers  may  work  simul- 
taneously along  the  line  of  the  same.  The  power  called 
for  is  not  large  in  amount,  compared  with  the  work  done. 


302 


WASHING   AND   SHEARING   SHEEP  303 

Small  machines  are  sometimes  used  for  flocks  on  farms 
that  are  limited  in  numbers.  These  are  sometimes  worked 
by  hand  power,  one  person  furnishing  the  power  and  an- 
other using  the  clippers.  In  some  instances  wind  power 
is  used,  and  also  power  obtained  from  tread  mills.  Where 
the  power  is  furnished  by  hand,  it  is  yet  somewhat  ques- 
tionable as  to  whether  this  method  will  come  into  general 
use.  But  where  power  is  furnished  from  other  sources, 
shearing  machinery  will  doubtless  almost  entirely  super- 
sede hand  shearing. 

The  following  instructions  in  the  use  of  the  clippers 
will  be  found  helpful :  Place  the  sheep  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion and  hold  it  tightly  between  the  knees.  When  in 
position  the  shearer  should  be  about  one  foot  to  the  left 
of  the  long  tube  and  about  one  foot  in  front  of  it.  When 
shearing,  always  turn  the  sheep  to  the  right,  which  should 
be  done  with  the  foot,  rather  than  with  the  hand.  When 
the  sheep  is  in  position,  part  the  wool  in  front  of  the  bris- 
ket and  run  the  clippers  down  twice  as  far  as  the  pit  of 
the  stomach.  Put  the  front  legs  behind  the  arm  at  the 
shoulder,  and  make  about  four  swaths  or  cuts  down  the 
right  side  between  the  fore  and  hind  flanks.  Then  shear 
across  the  belly  over  to  the  left  side,  on  a  line  between 
the  shoulder  and  the  flank.  Keep  the  heel  of  the  clipper 
elevated  a  little.  Then  trim  out  below  the  scrotum  or 
udder,  and  cut  the  wool  off  the  point  of  the  tail.  Place 
the  left  hand  just  above  the  stifle  and  press  down  so  as  to 
straighten  out  the  right  leg,  and  with  inward  strokes  trim 
the  inside  of  the  leg. 

With  the  hand  similarly  placed  above  the  stifle,  with 
outward  strokes  trim  the  inside  of  the  left  leg.  The 
shearer  should  then  place  his  right  foot  between  the  hind 
legs  of  the  sheep,  leaving  it  well  back  of  its  rump  against 
the  left  foot.  With  the  left  hand  placed  against  the 
sheep's  under  jaw,  the  neck  is  straightened  so  that  the 
back  will  be  against  the  knee,  and  two  swaths  are  cut 
along  the  right  side  of  the  neck.  The  side  of  the  jaw  is 


304  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

then  turned  against  the  knee,  and  the  left  side  of  the  neck 
is  trimmed,  the  clippers  running  lengthwise  of  the  neck  back 
to  its  center  and  then  to  the  top  of  the  head.  The  sheep 
is  then  turned  partly  around  and  is  in  position  to  have  the 
left  shoulder  shorn.  Each  stroke  made  should  be  to  the 
center  of  the  back,  keeping  the  left  hand  on  the  skin  above 
the  clippers  to  hold  it  in  a  stretched  and  smooth  position. 
The  left  shoulder  is  now  trimmed.  The  shearer  should 
hold  the  sheep  lightly  in  his  hand,  leaving  it  well  back 
and  pressing  his  knees  firmly  against  its  brisket.  With 
long,  smooth  and  quick  strokes  the  wool  is  removed  from 
the  side  of  the  sheep.  When  the  left  hind  leg  and 
tail  are  trimmed,  three  or  four  swaths  are  run  half  way 
up  the  back,  the  shearer  standing  astride  and  holding  the 
sheep  firmly  between  the  knees  and  putting  the  back  in 
rainbow  shape  as  far  as  practicable.  The  clippers  are  then 
run  up  the  back  and  the  head  is  trimmed.  W^hen  the  left 
side  of  the  neck  is  shorn,  the  sheep  is  set  up  straight,  its 
left  side  being  held  tightly  against  the  knees  and  the  right 
jaw  is  then  trimmed.  The  sheep's  neck  is  then  pressed 
down  against  its  left  side.  Beginning  at  the  under  side 
of  the  right  side  of  the  neck,  swaths  should  be  run  down 
to  the  shoulder,  the  clippers  next  working  back  on  the 
top  of  the  neck.  The  sheep's  neck  is  then  made  to  drop 
against  the  left  side,  the  shearer  placing  his  foot  clear 
over  out  beyond  the  sheep's  leg,  its  right  front  knee  be- 
ing held  down  tightly  under  the  same,  and  with  inward 
strokes  the  shoulder  and  front  leg  are  shorn.  The  sheep's 
head  is  then  raised  and  the  shearer's  left  leg  is  placed  be- 
tween the  sheep's  legs,  the  sheep  being  held  against  the 
shearer  while  the  other  side  and  hind  leg  are  shorn.  The 
aim  should  be  to  hold  the  sheep  in  an  easy  position,  and 
it  will  not  struggle  as  it  otherwise  would. 

When  sheep  are  shorn  by  hand  they  are  in  some  in- 
stances placed  on  a  shearing  bench,  but  more  commonly 
they  are  placed  on  a  floor ;  when  shorn  by  machinery  they 
are  always  thus  placed.  When  sheep  are  shorn  in  large 


WASHING    AND    SHEARING    SHEEP  305 

numbers  by  either  method,  each  gang  of  shearers  has  its 
complement  of  helpers  to  catch  the  sheep  and  also  to  care 
for  the  wool  when  the  fleece  has  been  removed.  The 
rapidity  with  which  good  shearers  will  remove  the  fleece 
is,  in  a  sense,  surprising.  The  fleece  has  been  removed 
by  hand  in  less  than  five  minutes,  and  by  machinery  in 
less  than  two  minutes.  Owing  to  the  closeness  of  the 
shearing  with  the  clippers,  the  sheep  are  more  susceptible 
to  the  influences  of  adverse  weather  subsequently.  Con- 
sequently more  care  should  be  exercised  in  providing 
them  with  shelter  from  inclement  weather.  Such  care 
has  special  significance  when  sheep  are  grazed  on  western 
ranges  where  fluctuations  in  temperature  come  suddenly 
and  in  some  instances  with  much  severity. 

What  is  known  as  stubble  shearing  is  sometimes  re- 
sorted to  by  those  who  exhibit  sheep  at  the  fairs.  When 
sheep  are  thus  shorn,  a  part  of  the  growth  of  the  wool  is 
left  on  at  the  time  of  the  shearing.  The  object  is  to  add 
to  the  length  of  the  staple.  Usually  about  half  of  the 
fleece  is  then  trimmed,  so  as  to  add  to  the  attractiveness 
of  the  animal  in  the  show  ring.  Stubble  shearing  is 
clearly  dishonest  when  it  contravenes  any  of  the  rules  of 
the  fair,  and  is  of  at  least  doubtful  morality  under  any 
conditions,  since  it  is  intended  to  deceive. 

Handling  the  shorn  fleece — In  all  instances  the  fleece 
should  be  trimmed  before  sorting,  when  such  trimming  is 
needed.  By  trimming  is  meant  removing  tags  to  which 
dried  excrement  adheres,  and  other  substances  foreign 
to  the  wool,  as  far  as  this  may  be  possible.  The  tags  will 
usually  more  than  repay  the  cost  of  washing.  This  may 
be  done  by  first  soaking  them  in  water  as  previously  in- 
timated, and  then  washing  them  two  or  three  times  in 
warm  soap  suds.  They  should  be  sold  apart  from  the 
other  wool,  and  wool  that  has  been  pulled  should  be  sim- 
ilarly sold. 

When  the  flock  is  small,  the  fleece  may  be  prepared  for 
marketing  as  follows:  It  is  spread  on  a  clean  floor,  with 


306  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

the  outside  upward.  The  two  sides  are  then  folded  back  so 
that  they  will  meet  in  the  center.  The  fleece  is  then  rolled 
toward  the  neck  as  compactly  as  this  can  be  done  by  hand. 
Then  tie  carefully  with  wool  twine,  using  two  or  three 
strings.  Twine  that  is  heavier  than  is  necessary  is 
frowned  upon  by  the  buyers,  and  justly  so,  as  they  get  no 
equivalent  for  the  twine. 

The  wool  from  large  flocks  may  be  prepared  for  the 
packing  as  follows :  The  fleece  is  spread  on  a  table  of  suit- 
able height,  and  wool  at  the  neck,  tail  and  flanks  is  turned 
inwards,  the  sides  meeting  in  the  center,  or  even  overlapping 
in  some  instances.  It  is  then  rolled  into  a  neat  roll  and 
tied.  The  tying  is  much  facilitated  by  placing  the  fleece 
in  a  box,  sometimes  made  with  hinged  sides  and  ends. 
The  strings  used  in  tying  are  first  put  in  place.  Narrow 
saw  cuts  in  the  upper  edges  of  the  ends  of  the  box  aid  in 
holding  them  in  place  until  used.  When  folded  and  tied, 
the  fleece  should  be  neat,  smooth  and  firm,  and  in  shape 
resembling  a  lady's  muff. 

When  the  market  is  not  distant,  the  wool  may  be 
carried  by  conveyance,  as  in  a  wagon  box  or  on  a  hay 
rack;  otherwise  it  should  be  sacked.  If  not  sacked  at 
once,  it  should  be  stored  in  a  wool  room,  proof  against 
the  ingress  of  rats  or  mice.  For  convenience  in  sacking 
it  is  preferably  stored  where  there  is  room  underneath 
for  suspending  the  sacks.  If  stored  on  shelves  easily 
accessible,  the  buyer  can  inspect  it  readily  and  with  but 
little  disturbance  to  the  wool.  The  fact  should  not  be 
overlooked  that  wool  when  stored  will  lose  from  one 
to  three  per  cent  of  its  weight,  according  to  the  method 
and  time  of  storage  and  to  the  amount  of  the  yolk. 

When  sacking  the  wool  the  sack  should  be  suspended 
underneath  a  trap  door.  When  a  few  fleeces  have  been 
thrown  in,  a  man  descends  and  arranges  them,  and  as 
they  are  handed  down  one  by  one,  they  are  systematically 
placed  in  layers  and  the  foot  is  put  on  the  last  fleece  laid 
in  place.  When  the  sack  is  full  it  is  raised  with  a  lever 


WASHING   AND    SHEARING   SHEEP  307 

underneath,  the  mouth  being  secured  with  clamps.  The 
hoop  is  then  removed,  the  sack  lowered  to  the  floor  be- 
neath, and  the  opening  is  sewed  up  with  twine.  A  piece 
of  corn  cob  tied  in  each  corner  of  the  sack  will  facilitate 
handling. 

As  a  rule,  the  aim  should  be  to  sell  the  wool  while  yet 
on  the  farm  or  ranch.  After  it  has  gone  to  a  storing  house 
the  grower  is,  in  a  sense,  powerless  to  treat  for  terms,  and 
must,  therefore,  virtually  accept  those  proffered.  It  is  a 
great  matter  when  the  reputation  of  the  grower  is  such 
that  he  can  sell  his  wool  without  inspection. 

Trimming  the  feet — Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  this  question  (see  page  282).  The  necessity  for 
such  trimming  may  arise  from  the  following  among  other 
causes:  (i)  The  splitting  or  breaking  of  the  edges  of  the 
hoof,  in  some  instances  to  the  extent  of  reaching  the  quick 
in  the  foot,  the  resultant  pain  causing  lameness ;  (2)  the 
turning  under  of  the  outer  edges  of  the  sole  so  as  to  in- 
crease the  difficulty  in  walking;  (3)  soreness  between  the 
cleft  portions  of  the  hoof,  usually  spoken  of  as  foul  foot ; 
(4)  foot  rot  in  all  its  phases. 

The  frequency  with  which  the  foot  should  be 
trimmed  will  be  much  influenced  by  the  soil.  Sheep  graz- 
ing on  hard  flinty  soils  may  call  for  but  little  attention 
of  this  nature.  The  hoofs  usually  wear  sufficiently  on 
such  soils  to  keep  them  in  shape.  On  soft  soils  trimming 
should  take  place  once,  and  sometimes  twice  a  year.  Any 
indications  of  lameness  should  call  for  an  examination  of 
the  feet.  It  is  of  special  importance  that  the  feet  of  show 
sheep  should  be  well  trimmed,  otherwise  they  cannot 
have  that  ease  of  locomotion  which  they  ought  to  have 
in  the  presence  of  a  judge.  The  shearing  season  furnishes 
an  opportune  time  for  trimming  the  feet. 

The  implements  used  in  trimming  the  feet  are  a  sharp 
knife  and  what  is  known  as  toe  clippers  or  toe  shears. 
The  latter  are  used  in  clipping  off  the  horny  substance, 
especially  at  the  toes.  The  sheep  is  placed  on  its  buttock 


308  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

with  its  back  to  the  operator;  the  left  thumb  is  inserted 
between  the  hoofs,  and  the  shears  are  used  so  as  to  cut 
from  within.  It  may  be  necessary  in  some  instances  to 
put  a  board  under  the  foot  of  the  animal  when  standing 
and  to  cut  back  the  toes  with  a  chisel  and  mallet.  The 
paring-  of  the  sole  should  be  such  as  will  give  the  foot  a 
firm  and  even  bearing  when  placed  upon  the  ground. 
When  the  soreness  referred  to  appears,  it  should  be  given 
prompt  attention,  lest  it  should  lead  to  increased  trouble, 
Finely  powdered  bluestone  has  proved  an  efficient  rem- 
edy. Trimming  for  foot  rot  is  discussed  elsewhere  (see 
page  415). 


CHAPTER  XV 
PROVIDING  SHEEP  WITH  WATER  AND  SALT 

In  discussing  this  question  the  following  phases  of  the 
subject  are  considered:  (i)  Sheep  with  and  without  wa- 
ter; (2)  Providing  water  for  sheep  in  summer;  (3)  Pro- 
viding water  for  sheep  in  winter;  (4)  Water  and  good 
health  in  sheep;  (5)  The  necessity  for  feeding  salt;  (6) 
Supplying  sheep  with  salt  in  summer;  and  (7)  Supplying 
sheep  with  salt  in  winter. 

In  many  instances  the  attention  given  to  supplying 
these  is  wholly  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  sheep, 
hence  the  amount  of  space  given  to  the  discussion  at  this 
time. 

Sheep  with  and  without  water — The  views  cherished 
by  many  with  reference  to  the  amount  of  water  called  for 
by  sheep  are  very  erroneous.  The  view  is  frequently  held 
that  sheep  do  not  need  water  when  on  pasture.  This  view 
is  based  on  the  fact  that  instances  are  numerous  in  cer- 
tain areas  in  which  sheep  have  maintained  a  good  con- 
dition as  to  thrift  when  grazing  where  no  water  had  been 
provided.  Where  such  a  result  has  followed,  however, 
the  pastures  have  been  at  least  fairly  succulent  and  the 
dews  have  been  copious.  From  these  sources  the  sheep 
were  able  to  obtain  sufficient  water  to  produce  the  re- 
sults noted.  There  are  other  conditions,  however,  where 
such  provision  would  be  wholly  inadequate,  such  as  the 
range  country  when  the  grasses  become  dry  and  the  dews 
fail  to  come.  Sheep  may  be  able  to  maintain  life  under 
such  conditions,  but  they  are  not  able  to  make  that  thrift 
that  they  ought  to  make  and  would  make  if  plentifully 
supplied  with  water.  Sheep  may  not  need  water  in  sum- 
mer under  the  following  conditions:  (i)  When  the 
grasses  are  sufficiently  succulent  to  furnish  the  sheep 

309 


3IO  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

with  all  the  water  that  they  need.  In  moist  climates  they 
are  frequently  found  in  such  a  condition  through  all  the 
spring  and  early  summer  and  again  in  the  autumn;  in 
some  instances  through  the  whole  of  the  same,  and  in 
others  only  in  the  late  autumn.  But  even  in  moist 
climates,  during  a  part  of  the  summer,  the  grass  alone 
will  not  furnish  water  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  sheep. 
(2)  Where  the  grasses  supplemented  by  the  dews  fur- 
nish a  sufficient  supply  of  water,  though  neither  of  these 
sources  alone  would  furnish  an  ample  supply.  But  the 
influences  that  produce  succulent  food  also  favor  copious 
dews,  hence  when  succulence  in  the  food  fails  beyond  a 
.certain  degree,  the  dews  shrink  also,  hence  in  the  heat  of 
summer  both  of  these  sources  taken  together  are  really 
inadequate  to  furnish  the  sheep  with  all  the  water  that 
they  need.  (3)  When  sheep  are  feeding  on  supplemen- 
tary foods,  such  as  rape,  which  contains  so  much  succu- 
lence that  water  is  not  necessary.  It  would  not  be  safe 
to  assume,  however,  that  sheep  will  not  profit  from  ac- 
cess to  water  when  feeding  on  rape.  The  degree  of  the 
succulence  found  in  rape  varies  much  with  the  climatic 
conditions  under  which  it  is  grown.  The  consumption 
of  water  and  consequently  the  need  for  the  same  increases 
with  increase  in  the  summer  heat.  Sheep  will  unques- 
tionably profit  from  access  to  water  in  summer,  when 
they  will  drink  it  in  any  considerable  quantities.  To  de- 
prive them  of  water  when  on  dry  pastures  is  simply  cruel, 
and  the  results  from  such  deprivation  are  intensified  as 
the  weather  waxes  warmer. 

Sheep  may  not  need  water  in  winter  when  they  are 
given  large  quantities  of  succulent  food,  as,  for  instance, 
field  roots.  This  may  hold  good  though  they  are  given 
a  fattening  ration.  But  in  practice  they  are  seldom  given 
enough  roots  to  preclude  the  necessity  for  giving  water. 
The  necessity  for  supplying  water  increases  :  (i)  With  the 
closeness  of  the  confinement;  (2)  with  the  stimulating 
character  of  the  food  fed;  and  (3)  with  the  extent  to 


PROVIDING   SHEEP    WITH    WATER   AND    SALT  3!  I 

which  support  is  called  for  by  lambs  that  may  be  nursing 
their  dams.  When  the  confinement  is  close,  the  sheep 
have  not  the  same  opportunity  to  eat  snow  as  they  do 
sometimes  in  order  to  relieve  their  thirst. 

Under  forced  feeding  sheep  will  take  much  more  wa- 
ter than  under  ordinary  feeding.  The  stimulating  char- 
acter of  the  food  creates  heat  in  the  system,  and  this 
proportionately  increases  the  demand  for  water.  When 
ewes  are  nursing  their  lambs,  they  cannot  adequately  sup- 
ply them  with  milk  without  being  themselves  abundantly 
supplied  with  water,  directly  or  indirectly,  through  the 
succulence  that  is  fed. 

Providing  water  for  sheep  in  summer — The  sources 
from  which  water  for  sheep  is  obtained  in  summer  are: 
(i)  The  grazing;  (2)  dews;  (3)  streams;  (4)  wells;  and 
(5)  ponds.  Grazing  and  dews  as  sources  of  water  sup- 
ply have  already  been  considered.  Where  the  supply  is 
insufficient  from  these  sources,  it  must  be  obtained  from 
one  of  the  other  sources  mentioned. 

Usually  water  furnished  by  streams  in  the  pastures 
is  very  suitable  to  the  needs  of  sheep.  Streams  with  cur- 
rent all  the  way  as  they  flow  through  the  pastures  are 
eminently  suitable,  and  the  same  is  true  of  rivulets  fed 
by  perennial  springs.  But  should  the  waters  spread  out 
betimes  on  level  stretches,  where  they  become  stagnant 
or  nearly  so,  the  grasses  that  grow  in  such  places  may 
harbor  therein  the  seeds  of  death  in  the  parasites  that 
usually  infest  such  places.  Water  obtained  from  wells 
is  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  sheep  as  a  rule,  al- 
though to  this  there  may  be  some  exceptions,  as  when  it 
is  impregnated  with  substances  that  are  not  relished  by 
the  sheep,  or  that  may  be  positively  harmful  to  them  be- 
cause of  the  substances  which  it  contains. 

Usually,  however,  water  obtained  from  wells  is  about 
on  a  par  in  quality  with  that  obtained  from  springs.  It 
is  usually  pumped  up  by  windmills,  so  regulated  that  they 
operate  only  when  water  may  be  needed.  The  troughs 


312  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

in  which  it  is  furnished  must  be  so  low  as  to  be  of  easy 
access  to  the  sheep,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
them  from  becoming  surrounded  with  wet  or  muddy 
ground,  a  condition  which  is  instinctively  avoided  by 
sheep. 

Water  obtained  from  ponds  is  usually  the  least  suited 
to  the  needs  of  sheep,  unless  it  be  water  that  is  furnished 
by  marshy  lands.  Such  water  is  objectionable  because  of 
the  impurities  which  it  may  contain.  The  conditions  for 
generating  these  are  favored  by  the  stagnant  condition 
of  the  waters.  Supplying  sheep  with  water  from  such  a 
source  should  be  avoided  where  this  is  practicable,  and 
yet  there  may  be  instances  in  which  water  from  this 
source  is  not  really  harmful.  Such  instances  are  some- 
times found  on  elevated  upland  ranges,  when  the  purity 
of  the  air  guards  the  water  from  impurities  such  as  would 
be  generated  under  conditions  the  opposite. 

Proximity  to  water  in  the  grazing  grounds  is  highly 
advantageous  to  the  well-being  of  the  sheep.  When  they 
have  to  travel  a  long  distance  in  warm  weather  to  obtain 
water  supplies,  they  will  not  thrive  as  they  would  when 
the  opposite  conditions  prevail.  Where  the  pastures  are 
large,  the  aim  should  be  to  have  water  supplied  in  various 
parts  of  the  same. 

Providing  water  for  sheep  in  winter — Water  obtained 
from  brooks  and  ponds  does  not  meet  the  needs  of  sheep 
in  winter  as  it  does  the  needs  of  other  animals.  They 
are  naturally  timid  and  shrink  from  drinking  where  the 
slightest  physical  hazard  is  present.  If  ice  should  be 
found  on  the  shores  of  a  stream,  sheep  will  not  approach 
it,  nor  can  they  be  taught  to  drink  from  openings  made  in 
a  pond.  Rather  than  take  water  under  such  conditions 
they  will  eat  snow,  and  in  the  absence  of  snow  will  go 
without  drinking. 

Water  obtained  from  wells  and  cisterns  is  much  more 
suitable,  because  it  is  so  much  more  readily  accessible  to 
the  sheep.  But  when  furnished  from  these  sources,  it 


PROVIDING  SHEEP   WITH    WATER  AND  SALT  313 

should  be  made  readily  accessible  to  them  in  order  that 
their  needs  in  this  respect  may  be  fully  met.  Water  sup- 
plied for  sheep  is  not  warmed  as  it  is  in  many  instances 
for  cattle.  It  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated  that  warm- 
ing the  water  for  sheep  will  repay  the  cost. 

While  some  classes  of  sheep  may  do  with  much  less 
water  than  others  in  winter,  no  class  of  sheep  should  be 
denied  access  to  it  for  a  single  day.  The  claim  that  snow 
will  prove  a  sufficient  source  of  water  is  untenable. 
Sheep  will  eat  clean  snow  to  relieve  their  thirst  when  wa- 
ter can  be  obtained  from  no  other  source,  but  they  will 
not  eat  enough  to  supply  their  needs.  Water  obtained 
from  this  source  is  unduly  cold.  Sheep  may  exist  under 
these  conditions,  but  they  will  not  thrive  as  they  should. 

Ewes  nursing  lambs  call  for  much  water,  and  the 
more  highly  that  they  are  fed  grain  the  greater  is  their 
need  for  plentiful  supplies  of  water,  in  the  absence  of  field 
roots.  Without  an  abundant  supply  of  water  they  cannot 
furnish  a  full  supply  of  milk  for  their  lambs.  The  amount 
of  water  that  ewes  thus  fed  will  take  will  surprise  those 
not  accustomed  to  such  feeding. 

Sheep  that  are  being  fattened  also  call  for  more  water 
than  sheep  that  are  being  simply  carried  through  the  win- 
ter. The  large  amount  of  grain  food  that  is  fed  to  them 
generates  thirst,  and  the  greater  the  degree  of  the  concen- 
tration the  greater  will  be  the  thirst.  No  class  of  sheep 
or  sheep  under  no  conditions  will  consume  more  water 
than  those  that  are  being  thus  fattened.  These  should  not 
only  have  access  to  water,  but  they  should  have  access 
to  it  at  will.  The  attempts  to  fatten  them  in  the  absence 
of  an  ample  supply  of  water  cannot  be  in  the  highest 
sense  successful. 

Water  should  be  made  easily  accessible  to  sheep.  If 
supplied  in  the  yards  or  sheds,  they  will  drink  when  they 
would  not  do  so  if  required  to  go  (futside  of  the  yard  to 
take  water.  It  cannot  be  supplied  to  the  ordinary  flock 
in  better  form  than  when  supplied  to  them  in  tubs  in  the 


314    '  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

pens,  which  may  be  readily  overturned,  to  free  them  from 
water  in  freezing  weather,  after  the  sheep  have  been  sup- 
plied for  the  day.  The  water  thus  needed  may  be  re- 
plenished from  pails  for  small  lots  of  sheep  and  from  a 
hose  for  a  larger  lot.  For  sheep  that  are  being  fattened 
in  a  wholesale  way,  water  may  be  furnished  in  a  trough 
or  tub  provided  with  a  float. 

Water  and  good  health  in  sheep — The  relation  be- 
tween good  health  and  the  character  of  the  water  given  to 
them  is  of  the  most  intimate  nature.  No  class  of  animals 
kept  upon  the  farm  is  so  much  subject  to  parasitical  dis- 
eases as  sheep,  and  water  is  the  medium  through  which 
some  of  these  reach  them.  The  importance,  therefore,  of 
furnishing  pure  water  for  sheep  cannot  be  easily  overesti- 
mated. Cattle  and  swine  may  be  able  in  some  instances 
to  drink  water  without  apparent  injury  that  would  be 
baneful  to  sheep. 

Water  furnished  by  ponds  is  objectionable.  It  is  ob- 
jectionable because  it  is  stagnant,  and  stagnant  water  is 
more  favorable  to  the  breeding  of  harmful  forms  of  para- 
sitic life  than  water  from  running  streams  or  wells.  It 
is  further  objectionable  because  when  long  stagnant  it 
loses  something  of  its  sweetness.  Sheep  are  peculiarly 
sensitive  to  such  changes.  They  will  not  drink  water 
affected  with  any  form  of  taint  unless  compelled  to  do  so 
from  thirst  that  must  be  partially  relieved.  In  cool 
climates  and  under  elevated  conditions,  water  from  ponds 
is  much  less  objectionable  than  water  furnished  under 
conditions  the  opposite. 

Water  furnished  from  marshy  lands  is  much  more 
objectionable  even  than  water  obtained  from  ponds.  The 
relation  between  access  to  such  water  on  the  part  of  the 
sheep  and  parasitical  diseases,  such  as  tapeworm  and 
stomach  worm,  has  been  forced  upon  flockmasters  in  too 
many  instances  to  leave  any  doubt  as  to  the  reality  and 
potency  of  such  a  relation.  How  far  the  parasites  come 
from  such  waters  directly  or  from  the  grasses  eaten  by 


PROVIDING  SHEEP   WITH    WATER  AND   SALT  315 

the  sheep  which  grow  up  in  such  waters  or  on  their  mar- 
gins has  not  yet  been  determined.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  about  the  relation  that  exists  between 
ill  doing  in  the  sheep  and  grazing  in  areas  where  access 
is  had  to  marshy  lands.  Because  of  this,  the  aim  should 
be  to  drain  such  lands  in  sheep  pastures  that  are  at  all 
permanent  in  character,  or  to  so  fence  them  where  drain- 
ing is  impracticable  that  the  sheep  will  not  have  access 
to  them. 

Water  contaminated  by  yard  seepage  is  harmful  to 
sheep.  It  is  harmful  because  of  the  taint  which  character- 
izes it  and  which  because  of  its  presence,  hinders  the 
sheep  from  drinking  it  freely.  But  it  is  further  harmful 
because  of  the  impurities  which  it  contains.  These  are 
adverse  to  well  doing  in  sheep.  But  most  of  all  it  is 
harmful  because  of  the  presence  of  the  various  forms  of 
parasitic  life  which,  in  the  germ,  it  may  contain.  It  is 
now  believed  that  nodule  disease  (see  page  400)  and  other 
diseases  may  be  communicated  in  such  water.  Every  care 
should  be  exercised  to  prevent  sheep  from  drinking  it. 

The  necessity  for  feeding  salt — The  necessity  for  fur- 
nishing salt  to  sheep  is  always  present,  save  in  certain 
areas  in  proximity  to  the  sea.  The  salt  that  falls  on  the 
herbage  from  the  rain  which  has  its  source  in  the  adjacent 
sea  is  in  some  instances  a  sufficient  source  of  supply. 
That  sheep  inherently  crave  salt  cannot  be  questioned. 
This  fact  is  abundantly  proved  by  the  eagerness  with 
which  they  consume  it  after  having  been  deprived  of  it 
for  any  length  of  time.  It  is  to  be  expected,  therefore, 
that  where  salt  is  not  regularly  supplied  to  the  sheep  and 
in  quantity  sufficient  to  meet  their  needs  that  they  will 
not  thrive  as  they  would  if  sufficiently  supplied  with  salt. 

Salt  is  not  a  food  in  the  sense  that  hay  or  grain  is. 
It  does  not  furnish  nutrients.  Its  mission  is  that  of  exer- 
cising a  favorable  influence  on  digestion.  This  influence 
is  exercised  in  various  ways.  It  stimulates  certain  of  the 
functions  pertaining  to  digestion  into  more  complete  ab- 


316  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

sorption  into  the  system  of  the  nutrients  in  the  food  in 
the  process  of  assimilation.  It  acts  as  a  corrective  to 
digestion  overlax  which  results  from  feeding  large  quan- 
tities of  succulent  food.  It  may  also  be  made  to  increase 
the  consumption  of  food  when  judiciously  added  to  the 
same.  As  a  result  of  this,  increase  in  form  or  function 
should  result  proportionately. 

With  the  exception  given  above  (see  page  315),  the 
necessity  for  supplying  animals  with  salt  is  always  pres- 
ent and  at  all  seasons.  The  effect  of  rain  containing  saline 
influences  does  not  extend  very  far  inland.  Hence  the 
areas  thus  affected  are  relatively  limited.  Even  quadru- 
peds not  under  domestication  show  a  fondness  for  salt  in 
the  extent  to  which  they  have  frequented  locations  where 
nature  furnishes  salt  in  the  region  of  salt  lakes.  This 
craving  is  intensified  in  animals  under  domestication  by 
the  large  quantities  of  food  furnished  to  them  in  an  artifi- 
cial way. 

The  aim  should  be  to  give  animals  under  domestica- 
tion access  to  salt  at  all  times.  They  will  then  take  no 
more  than  they  need,  and  only  in  such  quantities  as  they 
need  it.  It  is  virtually  impossible  in  any  other  way  to 
meet  the  exact  needs  of  the  animals.  This  will  be  appar- 
ent, first,  from  the  fact  that  no  two  animals  will  take  the 
same  quantity  of  salt  though  kept  under  conditions  prac- 
tically alike,  any  more  than  they  will  take  exactly  similar 
quantities  of  food  when  kept  under  like  conditions.  Sec- 
ond, the  different  foods  fed  influence  the  requirements  of 
salt,  and  no  one  is  able  to  measure  the  extent  of  this  in- 
fluence exactly.  Third,  the  changed  character  of  the 
ration  continually  exercises  an  influence  on  the  consump- 
tion of  salt,  and  no  one  can  measure  the  extent  of  this  in- 
fluence as  the  animal  can.  Give  sheep  free  access  to  salt, 
and  they  will  neither  take  too  much  nor  too  little. 

Supplying  salt  in  summer — Salt  is  sometimes  fur- 
nished to  sheep,  more  especially  in  summer,  in  the  form  of 
rock  salt.  The  objection  to  supplying  it  in  this  form  is, 


PROVIDING  SHEEP   WITH    WATER   AND   SALT  317 

that  the  sheep  will  not  take  enough  to  fully  supply  their 
needs.  The  better  way  is  to  keep  a  supply  of  common 
salt  constantly  accessible  to  them  in  the  pastures.  It  is 
best  supplied  in  a  trough  or  troughs,  covered  so  as  to  keep 
it  where  rain  cannot  fall  upon  it,  as  in  the  event  of  rain 
falling  upon  it  much  of  it  would  dissolve  and  thus  be  lost. 
The  trough  or  troughs  in  which  it  is  kept  should  be  placed 
near  the  watering  troughs,  as  the  sheep  are  more  prone 
to  congregate  around  these  places  than  in  other  parts  of 
the  pasture.  The  recommendation  to  distribute  salt 
around  harmful  plants  is  of  doubtful  value.  The  object 
sought  is  to  kill  the  plants  through  the  adverse  influence 
of  the  salt  on  growth  and  the  close  cropping  that  follows 
from  the  sheep.  The  results  from  such  application  are 
seldom  commensurate  with  the  outlay. 

In  very  many  instances  salt  is  supplied  to  sheep  on 
pastures  only  at  intervals.  The  shepherd  visits  the  flock, 
calls  the  sheep  around  him  and  places  the  salt  in  small 
piles  on  the  ground.  The  craving  of  the  sheep  for  the 
salt  is  shown  by  the  eagerness  with  which  the  sheep  con- 
sume it.  But  when  thus  supplied,  they  consume  too  large 
quantities  at  once,  hence  the  benefits  from  taking  the  salt 
are  in  a  sense  neutralized.  In  fact,  the  consumption  of 
large  quantities  of  salt  at  one  time  may  be  positively  in- 
jurious through  the  excessive  drinking  of  water  that  fol- 
lows and  the  disturbance  which  such  a  condition  creates. 

The  need  for  salt  increases  with  increase  in  succu- 
lence in  the  pastures  on  which  sheep  graze.  Succulent 
grazing  tends  to  relax  the  bowels,  and  to  such  an  extent 
in  some  instances,  as  to  lead  to  purging,  if  the  condition 
is  not  corrected.  Salt,  it  is  believed,  acts  so  far  as  a  cor- 
rective, hence  the  necessity  for  having  it  plentifully  sup- 
plied to  sheep  thus  grazed.  While  it  is  important  that 
sheep  shall  be  thus  supplied  with  salt  on  all  kinds  of 
grazing  that  is  succulent,  it  is  of  special  importance  that 
they  shall  be  thus  supplied  when  grazing  on  rape,  owing 
to  the  large  quantities  of  that  plant  which  they  consume. 


318  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

Supplying  salt  in  winter — As  in  summer,  salt  should 
also  be  made  constantly  accessible  to  sheep  in  winter.  It 
is  best  supplied  to  them  in  boxes  under  the  cover  of  the 
sheds. 

In  very  cold  weather  it  is  better  to  supply  it  in  mod- 
erate quantities  frequently  renewed  than  in  large  quanti- 
ties seldom  renewed,  as  when  supplied  in  large  quantities 
it  does  not  remain  so  fresh  and  clean,  and  it  incrusts  more 
or  less  from  the  congealing  of  the  moisture  left  upon  it 
while  the  sheep  are  taking  it. 

Salt  is  sometimes  given  in  the  food.  When  thus  sup- 
plied it  certainly  does  add  to  the  relish  with  which  the 
food  is  eaten,  but  to  supplying  it  thus  there  is  the  strong 
objection  that  it  cannot  be  known  just  how  much  should 
be  supplied.  There  is  the  further  objection  that  such 
a  method  of  supplying  salt  involves  more  labor.  To  de- 
prive sheep  of  salt  either  winter  or  summer  will  certainly 
hinder  their  thrift,  and  to  apply  it  only  at  intervals  in  the 
winter  is  open  to  the  same  objection  as  supplying  it  thus 
in  summer. 

When  succulent  food  is  fed  in  winter,  the  craving  for 
salt  increases  with  increase  in  the  succulence  given.  This 
applies  to  succulence  in  whatsoever  form  it  may  be  fed. 
This,  however,  is  not  relatively  so  important  as  in  sum- 
mer, as  the  succulent  food  eaten  at  that  season  is  more 
succulent  than  the  food  fed  in  winter.  It  is  also  believed 
that  the  consumption  of  salt  increases  with  the  forced 
character  of  the  feeding. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
SHELTER  FOR  SHEEP  SUMMER  AND  WINTER 

In  Chapter  XVI  the  discussion  will  consider  the  fol- 
lowing items:  (i)  The  shelter  called  for  in  winter;  (2) 
The  shelter  called  for  in  summer;  (3)  Considerations  in 
locating  a  sheep  shed;  (4)  Shelter  that  is  not  costly;  (5) 
The  more  essential  features  of  a  permanent  sheep  house ; 
(6)  A  building,  oblong  and  not  too  wide;  (7)  A  structure 
of  two  stories;  (8)  Facilities  for  convenient  feeding;  (9) 
Divisions  in  the  lower  story;  (10)  Warm  lambing  pens; 
(n)  Facilities  for  watering;  (12)  Sunlight,  yard  room 
and  paddocks;  (13)  Ventilation  without  drafts;  and  (14) 
Plans  of  sheep  houses. 

The  shelter  called  for  in  winter — The  protection 
called  for  by  sheep  in  winter  should  be  such  as  to  shield 
them:  (i)  From  falling  storms;  (2)  from  winds;-  and  (3) 
from  dampness.  When  given  such  protection  and  an  am- 
ple supply  of  nutritious  and  palatable  food,  they  are  not 
much  liable  to  be  harmed  by  low  temperatures. 

The  most  important  item  of  protection  is  that  which 
shields  them  from  falling  storms,  and  especially  from  the 
cold  storms  of  rain  and  sleet,  such  as  fall  in  winter  in  cer- 
tain latitudes.  Dry  snow  is  but  little  harmful  to  sheep 
when  it  falls  upon  them,  save  when  it  is  accompanied  by 
a  driving  wind,  such  as  will  force  it  into  any  openings 
that  may  be  present  in  the  fleece.  Exposure  to  cold  rain 
and  sleet,  especially  when  prolonged  and  when  the  pre- 
cipitation is  copious,  is  always  more  or  less  harmful,  and 
in  some  instances  the  toll  of  loss  taken  from  the  open 
wool  breeds  under  such  exposure  may  be  severe.  The 
rain,  penetrating  to  the  skin,  more  especially  along  the 
line  of  the  back,  may  give  rise  to  inflammations  that  result 

819 


32O  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

disastrously.  The  fine  wool  breeds,  especially  those  of 
the  Merino  types,  will  be  harmed  much  less  by  such  ex- 
posure than  the  breeds  possessed  of  longer  and  more  open 
wool.  But  for  any  class  of  sheep,  shed  protection  should 
be  provided  to  shield  them  from  such  storms  where  they 
are  liable  to  occur.  Especially  should  the  flock  be  guarded 
at  those  seasons  when  such  storms  are  liable  to  occur 
suddenly.  Slow  drizzling  rain  may  do  but  little  harm, 
even  though  prolonged,  as  the  natural  heat  of  the  body 
is  sufficient  to  ward  off  any  harmful  influences  from  such 
exposure. 

Protection  from  the  sweep  of  cold  winds  is  also 
greatly  important.  In  prairie  areas  the  necessity  for  such 
protection  is  greater  than  the  necessity  for  protection 
from  cold  rains.  The  latter  occur  but  seldom  on  the  west- 
ern prairies,  especially  in  the  autumn,  whereas  the  former 
blow  with  much  constancy  during  the  winter  season. 
Such  exposure  is  a  disturbing  influence,  and  most  of  all 
in  the  night,  because  the  flock  is  at  rest.  When  at  lib- 
erty to  choose  their  own  protection,  they  will  invariably 
seek  a  sheltered  place  protected  from  cold  winds  when 
taking  their  rest.  The  winds  are  especially  disturbing  to 
the  sheep  with  long  and  open  wool.  By  lifting  portions 
of  the  fleece  the  cold  wind  reaches  the  body.  In  the  case 
of  driving  snow  storms  the  influences  are  still  more  harmful. 

Protection  from  dampness  is  especially  needed  when 
the  sheep  are  in  winter  quarters.  It  is  less  needed  in 
climates  where  the  cold  is  continuous  from  autumn  until 
spring.  But  even  in  these,  should  the  sheep  be  sheltered 
by  leaky  straw  roofs,  rain  and  melted  snow  may  soon 
bring  about  a  condition  in  the  dampness  of  the  bedding 
underneath  that  is  inimical  to  the  health  of  the  sheep. 
In  climates  with  much  rain  in  winter  care  should  be  taken 
to  renew  the  bedding  in  the  sheds  and  yards  sufficiently 
often  to  keep  them  free  from  dampness.  A  damp  bed 
tends  to  induce  rheumatic  troubles  and  various  other  ail- 
ments that  may  prove  peculiarly  harmful  to  the  flock. 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND   WINTER  32! 

Sheep  do  not  suffer  readily  from  cold  when  the  con- 
ditions maintained  above  are  all  present.  Give  them  the 
choice  of  lying  on  a  dry  bed  beneath  the  canopy  of  the  sky 
in  the  one  instance  and  beneath  an  open  or  a  nearly  closed 
shed  in  the  other,  and  they  will  frequently  prefer  the 
former  even  when  the  temperatures  may  be  very  low; 
and  it  is  better  for  them  thus  to  rest  than  if  confined  in 
a  warm  shed. 

The  shelter  called  for  in  summer — In  summer  sheep 
should  be  protected:  (i)  From  cold  rains;  (2)  from  ex- 
cessive sunshine ;  and  (3)  from  flies.  It  may  not  be  easy 
or  possible  to  provide  such  protection  on  the  open  range, 
but  on  the  arable  farm  it  should  be  quite  feasible  under 
average  conditions. 

In  the  early  summer  in  northern  latitudes  cold  rains 
fall  occasionally  and  in  some  instances  they  are  prolonged, 
covering  two  to  three  days  at  a  time.  Farther  south  such 
rains  come  earlier.  These  are  especially  harmful  to  open- 
wool  sheep,  and  they  are  more  harmful  to  them  when 
newly  shorn  than  previously.  Most  of  all  are  they  harm- 
ful to  lambs,  and  in  proportion  as  they  are  young.  Even 
though  active  disease,  as  inflammation,  should  not  follow, 
the  setback  to  thrift  in  the  sheep  and  to  growth  in  the 
lambs  will  call  for  some  time  to  make  good  the  harm 
done.  At  such  times  the  flock  should  be  quickly  trans- 
ferred to  winter  quarters  and  fed  on  food  provided  and 
reserved  for  such  an  emergency.  On  the  open  range  the 
shepherd  should  aim  to  have  the  flock  not  too  distant 
from  winter  shelter,  should  indications  of  coming  storm 
be  present. 

Protection  from  excessive  sunshine  is  increasingly 
important  as  the  latitude  lessens.  On  the  open  range  it 
is  less  important  because  of  the  breezes  that  are  almost 
continually  present  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  Such  pro- 
tection on  the  arable  farm  may  be  furnished,  first, 
through  the  shade  of  trees,  and  second,  through  ventilated 
and  darkened  sheds.  The  trees  may  be  isolated  and  grow- 


322  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ing  singly,  or  they  may  be  grown  in  groups  to  provide 
such  shade.  On  the  prairie  quick-growing  trees  should 
be  planted  to  provide  such  shade  on  the  arable  farm,  and 
preferably  in  groves.  Where  there  is  a  natural  growth 
of  trees  fringing  a  stream  that  runs  through  the  pastures, 
the  shade  conditions  are  ideal,  with  reference  at  least  to 
protection  from  sunshine.  Where  the  pastures  merge 
into  forest,  the  shade  conditions  are  also  excellent,  but  in 
such  instances  any  considerable  growth  of  young  trees 
will  be  prevented.  When  shade  is  provided  by  a  venti- 
lated shed  or  basement,  especially  the  latter,  it  brings 
more  of  coolness  with  it. 

Sheep  during  the  warmest  weather  are  very  liable 
to  be  greatly  disturbed  by  flies.  A  dense  forest  shade 
may  furnish  some  protection,  as  flies  are  much  less  liable 
to  be  frequent  where  the  shadows  are  dark  than  when 
bright  sunshine  is  present.  When  sheep  may  have  free 
access  during  the  heat  of  the  day  to  a  darkened  and  ven- 
tilated basement,  the  conditions  are  ideal  for  protection 
from  flies.  Ventilation  may  be  furnished  by  having  the 
windows  open  and  sufficient  darkness  may  be  secured  by 
covering  them  with  some  very  coarse  cloth,  as  sacking 
material.  A  fringed  piece  should  hang  down  over  the 
place  of  entrance.  The  sheep  will  soon  learn  to  push 
through  this,  and  when  doing  so  the  frayed  material  will 
brush  back  the  flies.  A  flock  will  soon  learn  to  come  for 
such  protection  daily  when  they  may  have  access  to  it. 

Considerations  in  locating  a  sheep  shed — When  locat- 
ing a  sheep  shed  the  aim  should  be:  (i)  To  place  it  on 
ground  dry  and  porous;  (2)  to  insure  protection  on  the 
windward  side ;  and  (3)  to  secure  ample  room  for  yards 
and  paddocks.  Natural  conditions  when  all  are  favorable 
will  add  greatly  to  the  ease  with  which  such  a  location 
may  be  secured,  and  the  lack  of  these  will  add  equally 
to  the  difficulty  of  locating  the  same. 

It  is  greatly  important  that  the  sheep  sheds  should 
be  located  on  ground  dry  and  porous.  Locating  on 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND   WINTER  323 

ground  naturally  damp  and  without  facilities  for  drainage 
would  result  in  muddy  surroundings,  and  these  would 
soon  bring  disaster  to  the  flock.  For  such  a  location  a 
sandy  soil  is  much  preferable  to  a  clay  soil,  but  very  fre- 
quently it  may  not  be  possible  to  secure  such  a  soil. 
Where  the  soil  is  clay  the  aim  should  be  to  have  the 
ground  slope  away  more  or  less  from  the  sheds  in  as 
many  directions  as  it  may  be  possible  to  secure.  This 
would  be  much  preferable  to  placing  the  shed  on  clay 
land  so  level  and  damp  that  underdrainage  would  be  nec- 
essary to  remove  the  excess  of  water.  In  some  areas  of 
the  prairie  it  may  not  be  easy  to  secure  a  suitable  site,  but 
in  such  areas  it  is  questionable  if  sheep  can  be  made  to 
prosper.  Where  the  soil  and  subsoil  are  both  sandy  the 
conditions  may  not  be  objectionable,  even  though  the 
ground  is  level.  But  under  any  conditions,  the  aim  should 
be  to  secure  something  of  a  rise  on  which  to  erect  the 
sheds. 

Protection  from  cold  winds,  especially  on  the  wind- 
ward side,  is  much  influenced  by  natural  conditions. 
Where  the  sheds  may  be  located  on  the  leeward  side  of  a 
natural  or  artificial  grove,  it  may  be  secured  with  but  little 
additional  outlay.  When  the  grove  is  sufficiently  dense 
and  the  bluff  is  sufficiently  high,  the  protection  from  wind 
is  so  far  very  complete.  It  is  even  more  complete  when 
the  land  on  the  sides  of  the  bluff  and  below  it  is  covered 
with  trees.  In  such  instances  the  paddocks,  but  not  neces- 
sarily the  yards,  will  be  restricted  to  the  leeward  side  of 
the  sheds. 

Protection  from  winds  is  very  frequently  more  diffi- 
cult and  costly  to  secure  than  protection  in  other  areas. 
This  is  especially  true  when  the  country  is  bare  of  trees, 
and  when  because  of  the  dry  conditions  it  may  not  be 
easy  to  grow  them.  But  in  such  areas  bluff  conditions 
beside  the  streams  such  as  those  referred  to  above,  are  not 
in  all  instances  infrequent,  and  they  have  the  further  ad- 
vantage of  being  near  to  a  living  water  supply.  Where 


324  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

no  natural  protection  is  present,  a  grove  of  considerable 
depth  should  be  planted  on  the  windward  side.  It  should 
be  given  sufficient  cultivation  on  and  near  the  surface  to 
keep  it  clean,  until  what  are  termed  forest  conditions  may 
be  secured.  Such  a  grove  properly  cared  for  will  begin 
to  furnish  protection  three  years  from  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, and  in  six  years  the  protection  should  be  very  ma- 
terial. In  such  locations  it  may  be  necessary  from  the 
outset  to  protect  the  yards,  at  least  on  the  sunny  side  of 
the  building,  by  surrounding  them  with  a  board  fence 
sufficiently  high  to  break  the  force  of  the  wind.  In  some 
instances  sheds  of  fodder  or  bedding  may  be  so  built  as 
to  render  some  aid  in  furnishing  such  protection. 

In  areas  where  the  temperatures  are  mild  and  the 
winds  are  but  little  constant  or  violent,  yards  and  pad- 
docks may  be  secured  virtually  on  all  sides  of  the  shed, 
should  this  be  desired.  But  where  the  shed  is  planted 
close  up  against  a  grove  or  bluff,  on  one  side  only  can 
paddocks  be  secured;  that  is,  in  front  of  the  shed  and 
possibly  in  some  instances  at  one  end.  Where  the  flock 
contains  many  animals,  it  will  be  found  a  great  conven- 
ience to  have  several  of  these  on  hand.  They  furnish  graz- 
ing in  summer  for  small  lots,  as  stock  rams,  for  instance, 
should  it  be  desired  to  keep  them  apart  from  the  main 
flock,  or  they  may  be  made  to  furnish  soiling  food,  near  at 
hand  for  autumn  feeding.  In  winter  when  not  too  much 
wind-swept,  they  furnish  a  good  place  in  which  to  strew 
corn  or  other  fodders,  where  the  sheep  may  get  some  ex- 
ercise while  picking  it  over.  For  the  plan  of  yards  and 
paddocks  see  page  338. 

Shelter  that  is  not  costly — Where  small  flocks  of 
sheep  are  kept,  and  in  areas  where  the  ordinary  building 
materials  are  costly,  shelter  sufficient  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose may  be  made  from  cheap  materials.  These  include 
sheds  made:  (i)  Of  poles  and  straw;  (2)  of  baled  straw; 
and  (3)  of  logs  or  sods. 

A  shed  made  of  poles  and  straw  is  best  adapted  to  a 


SHELTER  FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND   WINTER  325 

country  with  but  a  limited  amountof  precipitation  in  win- 
ter. Such  a  structure  is  ill-adapted  to  a  climate  with 
heavy  precipitation  in  winter  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
preventing  leaking  in  the  early  spring.  It  may  be  con- 
structed of  almost  any  kind  of  poles  that  may  be  obtain- 
able. In  western  areas  these  are  usually  cottonwood  or 
poplar  that  may  be  cut  by  the  streams.  They  are  built 
up  in  the  form  of  a  square,  or  at  least  of  a  pen  of  three 
sides.  If  built  as  a  square  a  doorway  must  be  cut  open 
in  the  front  side,  or  the  poles  on  that  side  should  not 
come  within  3  or  4  feet  of  the  ground.  The  structure 
should  be  7  or  8  feet  high.  Strong  poles  should  be  laid 
across  the  top  rails  to  support  the  straw  roof.  When  the 
poles  have  been  put  in  place,  a  heavy  covering  of  straw 
is  built  all  around  the  structure,  save  on  the  front  side. 
The  straw  above  should  be  built  so  as  to  shed  water,  as 
far  as  this  may  be  attainable.  Such  a  covering  may  usu- 
ally be  most  cheaply  provided  at  the  season  of  threshing. 
It  may  shelter  a  small  flock  quite  satisfactorily  as  long  as 
water  does  not  percolate  down  through  the  roof. 

The  building  of  sheep  sheds  by  using  baled  straw 
has  been  advocated  in  the  press  and  on  institute  plat- 
forms, more  especially  in  areas  where  the  winters  are  cold 
and  straw  is  so  abundant  that  it  is  usually  burned  to  get 
it  out  of  the  way  of  the  husbandman.  Thus  it  is  that 
straw  is  disposed  of  more  commonly  in  the  Northwestern 
states  and  the  western  provinces  of  Canada.  This  method 
of  providing  shelter  for  sheep  and  for  cattle  in  such  areas 
would  seem  to  be  not  only  feasible  but  commendable. 
Notwithstanding,  the  sheds  that  have  been  constructed  of 
this  material  are  very  few.  This,  however,  does  not  prove 
that  these  would  be  undesirable  to  the  keeper  of  live 
stock.  But  few  sheep  are  kept  as  yet  in  the  grain- 
growing  areas  of  the  prairie,  hence  the  need  for  such  shel- 
ter has  not  been  an  important  question.  Sheds  made  of 
baled  straw  are  furnished  with  a  roof  of  rafters  covered 
by  boards  with  battens  over  the  cracks  or  other  rain- 


326  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

resisting  material.  Roofs  with  but  one  slope  are,  of 
course,  the  cheaper.  The  walls  inside  may  call  for  some 
kind  of  protection  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  wearing 
away  any  of  the  material  of  the  bundles,  but  the  protec- 
tion does  not  need  to  be  given  to  a  height  greater  than  3 
to  4  feet.  Windows  may  be  made  to  admit  ample  light, 
and  ventilation  must  be  secured  where  the  shed  is  not 
open  in  front.  Such  sheds  are  amply  warm,  and  in  a  rea- 
sonably dry  climate  should  last  for  a  number  of  years. 

In  certain  range  states  sheds  for  sheep  have  been 
constructed  of  logs.  These,  in  comparatively  treeless 
areas,  are  usually  obtained  from  certain  soft  woods  that 
grow  beside  the  streams.  The  walls  of  these  sheds  are 
built  after  the  fashion  of  the  primitive  log  dwellings  of 
years  ago.  The  cracks  between  them  are  covered  with 
clay  of  the  consistency  of  mortar.  The  roofs  have  rafters 
with  but  one  slope.  These  are  covered  with  boards  and 
the  mortar  clay  is  spread  over  the  boards.  In  areas  with 
but  little  rainfall  such  sheds  answer  the  purpose  quite 
well.  They  are  of  low  construction,  which  is  economical 
of  material.  In  forest  areas  where  settlement  is  but  re- 
cent, sheds  may  be  thus  constructed  of  such  timbers  as 
may  be  in  the  locality,  but  in  such  instances  the  roof 
should  be  shingled,  the  better  to  resist  the  copious  rain- 
fall of  such  areas. 

Sheds  may  be  constructed  on  the  prairies  that  will 
last  for  a  number  of  years,  though  made  of  sods.  Cheap 
as  the  construction  of  these  may  be,  they  do  not  stand 
so  high  in  favor  apparently  as  the  log  shed  with  the  clay 
roof,  and  probably  for  the  reason  that  more  labor  is  in- 
volved in  their  construction.  Sod  sheds  will  not  last  many 
years  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy. 

The  more  essential  features  of  a  sheep  house — The 
discussion  of  the  more  essential  features  of  a  permanent 
sheep  house,  will  consider  the  following:  (i)  A  building- 
oblong  in  shape ;  (2)  a  structure  of  two  stories ;  (3)  facili- 
ties for  convenient  feeding;  (4)  divisions  in  the  lower 


SHELTER  FOR   SHEEP  SUMMER  AND   WINTER  327 

story;  (5)  warm  lambing  pens;  (6)  facilities  for  water- 
ing ;  (7)  sunlight,  yard  room  and  paddocks ;  (8)  ventila- 
tion without  drafts. 

A  building  oblong  in  shape  and  not  too  wide,  is  usu- 
ally preferred  for  sheep,  to  one  more  nearly  square.  This 
will  hold  true  of  it,  whether  it  has  a  passageway  in  the 
center  from  end  to  end  and  divisions  on  either  side,  or 
whether  it  has  a  passageway  along  one  side  and  one  tier 
of  pens  along  the  same.  For  the  reason,  see  page  329. 

Whether  the  structure  shall  have  one  or  two  stories 
will  depend  very  much  on  the  climate  as  to  precipitation, 
and  on  the  amount  of  food  called  for  to  carry  through  the 
winter.  The  more  moist  the  climate,  the  larger  the 
amount  of  the  precipitation  in  winter,  and  the  longer  the 
demand  for  food  continues  the  greater  is  the  necessity  for 
two  stories  rather  than  one  (see  page  330). 

The  matter  of  the  facilities  for  feeding  is  greatly  im- 
portant, because  of  the  bearing  that  it  has  upon  the 
amount  of  labor  involved,  and  because  of  the  influence 
which  it  has  upon  the  saving  or  the  wasting  of  food.  The 
facilities  called  for  vary  greatly  with  the  size  of  the  flock 
and  the  divisions  in  the  same,  with  the  nature  of  the  food 
or  foods  fed,  and  with  the  climatic  conditions  (see  page 

332). 

The  divisions  in  the  lower  story  are  dependent  in  a 
great  measure  on  the  divisions  in  the  flock,  and  on  the 
time  when  the  lambs  come.  The  larger  the  number  of 
the  divisions  in  the  flock  and  the  earlier  the  season  at 
which  the  lambs  begin  to  come,  the  larger  is  the  number 
of  the  divisions  required  (see  page  335). 

The  necessity  for  warm  lambing  pens  is,  in  a  sense, 
imperative  in  a  climate  of  low  winter  temperatures  when 
the  lambs  come  before  the  advent  of  warm  weather. 
When  the  lambs  come  into  existence  in  the  fields,  of 
course,  the  necessity  for  lambing  pens  is  not  present.  On 
the  ranges  of  the  West  the  question  of  lambing  pens  does 
not  need  to  be  considered,  but  in  areas  where  winter 


328  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

lambs  are  concerned  it  may  be  a  very  vital  issue  for  the 
location  and  construction  of  lambing  pens  (see  page  336). 

The  facilities  for  watering  are  greatly  important. 
The  idea  frequently  cherished  that  sheep  do  not  need  to 
be  supplied  with  water  is  certainly  fallacious.  They  can 
exist  without  water  when  the  pastures  are  succulent  or 
when  snow  covers  the  ground  better  than  any  other  class 
of  animals  kept  on  the  farm,  but  the  fact  remains  that 
the  flockmaster  who  supplies  his  sheep  with  an  ample 
supply  of  pure  water  will  be  abundantly  rewarded  for  his 
pains  (see  Chapter  XV). 

The  provision  of  sunlight,  yard  room  and  paddocks 
is  seldom  given  the  consideration  which  the  importance 
of  these  demands.  Without  ample  sunlight  in  the  sheds, 
the  highest  degree  of  vigor  in  the  sheep  cannot  be  main- 
tained. In  the  absence  of  suitable  yards  the  proper  grad- 
ing of  the  sheep  is  not  practicable,  and  in  the  absence  of 
paddocks  it  is  not  possible  to  keep  a  breeding  flock  in 
every  respect  as  it  should  be  kept.  For  the  further  dis- 
cussion of  this  question  see  page  338. 

The  question  of  ventilation  without  drafts  is  greatly 
significant.  When  sheep  are  confined  in  close  quarters 
without  proper  ventilation,  the  results  will  soon  become 
disastrous  to  the  well-being  of  the  flock.  How  such  ven- 
tilation may  be  secured  without  drafts  is  discussed  on 
Page  339- 

The  facilities  for  removing  the  manure  should  not  be 
overlooked,  since  the  frequent  removal  of  the  same  is 
beneficial  to  the  health  of  the  sheep,  and  it  also  prevents 
serious  deterioration  in  the  value  of  the  manure.  Such 
removal  tends  to  lessen  odors  that  generate,  and  it  tends 
to  prevent  fire  fang,  which  is  so  common  to  sheep  manure 
when  made  under  cover. 

A  building  oblong  and  not  too  wide — An  oblong 
sheep  shed  has  the  following  advantages  over  one  that  is 
somewhat  square  or  round  in  shape:  (i)  It  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  increase  the  divisions  easily  and  to  locate  them 


SHELTER  FOR  SHEEP  SUMMER  AND   WINTER  329 

conveniently;  (2)  it  facilitates  the  easy  storage  of  foods 
of  different  classes  and  the  placing  of  the  same  for  con- 
venient feeding,  providing  the  shed  has  room  for  such 
storage  overhead ;  (3)  it  makes  it  possible  to  increase  the 
yard  room  and  divisions  in  the  same,  and  such  possible 
increase  becomes  greater  with  increasing  narrowness  in 
the  sheds;  (4)  it  facilitates  the  easy  removal  of  sheep 
from  pen  to  pen  and  without  the  necessity  of  exposing 
them  to  outdoor  weather.  These  facts  will  become  more 
and  more  apparent  as  the  plans  submitted  later  in  this 
chapter  are  studied. 

In  some  instances  to  these  oblong  buildings  ex- 
tensions are  added  in  the  form  of  an  L,  which  means  that 
these  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  main  shed.  Some- 
times these  extensions  are  at  one  end.  In  other  instances 
they  are  at  both  ends.  More  commonly  they  extend  quite 
across  the  end  of  the  main  building.  Where  but  one  ex- 
tension is  built,  it  should  be  placed  on  the  windward  side 
of  the  yard.  These  extensions  are,  in  a  sense,  a  continua- 
tion of  the  main  shed,  but  at  a  different  angle.  They 
serve  the  purpose,  first,  of  adding  to  the  room ;  second,  of 
making  it  possible  to  add  to  the  yard  room;  and,  third, 
of  furnishing  protection  to  the  yards  from  winds.  There 
is  no  method  of  furnishing  such  protection  that  is  more 
efficacious. 

In  such  an  oblong  building  the  location  of  the  feed 
passage  depends  on  the  width  of  the  same.  Where  the 
building  is  wide  enough  to  admit  of  placing  divisions  on 
both  sides  of  the  passage,  it  must  run  from  end  to  end, 
but  not  necessarily  in  the  center,  as  it  may  be  desirable 
to  have  the  divisions  larger  on  one  side  than  on  the  other. 
The  average  width  for  such  a  passage  is  6  feet.  It  should 
seldom  be  narrower,  but  may  be  wide  enough  where  large 
numbers  are  to  be  fed  to  drive  two  horses  and  a  wagon 
through  the  same.  This  would  call  for  a  width  of  not  less 
than  9  or  10  feet.  Where  fodders  and  bedding  are  kept 
overhead,  they  may  be  thrown  down  through  chutes  into 


33° 


MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 


the  passage  and  distributed  from  the  same  into  any  direc- 
tion it  may  be  desired.  When  but  one  tier  of  pens  is 
present  the  passage  should  be  placed  just  inside  of  the 
side  wall  on  the  shady  side  of  the  building.  In  that  the 
sheep  may  have  access  to  the  yards  on  the  same  side.  A 
passage  thus  placed  may  be  a  little  narrower  than  a  cen- 
tral passage,  as  a  less  amount  of  food  is  fed  from  it,  but 
it  should  seldom  be  less  than  6  feet.  The  passage  should, 
of  course,  extend  through  the  wings.  Figure  15  shows  an 
excellent  form  of  sheep  rack  that  may  be  at  one  or  both 
sides  of  the  feed  passage. 

A  structure  of  two  stories — Whether  the  sheep  shed 

should  have  one  or 
two  stories  will  be 
determined,  as  inti- 
mated elsewhere,  by 
the  necessity  that 
exists  for  storing 
food  and  bedding  un- 
der  cover.  In 
climates  in  which 
the  rainfall  is  fre- 
quent and  copious  in 
winter,  or  in  which 
the  snowfall  is  deep, 
it  is  a  great  advan- 
tage to  have  the 
same  under  cover, 
and  in  no  other  way 
can  such  cover  be 
provided  more 
cheaply  than  through 
a  sufficiently  commodious  loft  in  a  sheep  barn.  In  areas 
where  the  winter  climate  is  dry  and  where  but  a  limited 
amount  of  feeding  is  called  for,  it  is  not  necessary  to  build 
sheds  with  two  stories.  Where  much  food  is  to  be  stored,  the 
two-story  shed  is  economical  of  construction.  It  is  specially 


V; 


Ti* 
Cl.at 


FIG.    15— PLAN   OF   A   CONVENIENT   SHEEP 

RACK,  END  VIEW 
(Courtesy  Michigan  Agricultural  College) 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND   WINTER  331 

economical  in  roofing,  as  the  one. roof  serves  the  double  pur- 
pose of  providing  protection  to  the  fodders  in  the  upper 
story  and  to  the  sheep  in  the  lower.  It  is  also  economical 
in  foundation  material  and  in  other  items  of  construction. 

The  loft  of  such  a  building  may  be  made  to  store  a 
large  amount  of  food.  The  higher  the  posts  or  walls 
that  support  the  roof,  the  larger,  of  course,  is  the  room 
for  storage.  The  food  and  litter  in  the  same  may  all  be 
stored  by  the  aid  of  a  horsefork  or  a  sling.  When  storing 
these,  the  aim  should  be  to  locate  each  kind,  as  far  as  this 
may  be  practicable,  directly  above  the  pens  where  the 
same  is  to  be  fed. 

The  convenience  in  feeding  fodders  from  such  a  loft 
will  be  at  once  apparent.  The  food  is  always  dry,  regard- 
less of  the  character  of  the  weather,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  the  litter.  It  does  not  require  to  be  drawn  from  day  to 
day  or  at  intervals.  The  forking  is  downward  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  easily  done.  When  the  food  is  to  be  drawn  from 
time  to  time  there  is  not  only  a  loss  of  time  involved,  but 
exposure  may  be  called  for  that  is  irksome  to  the  work- 
hands.  A  two-story  shed  does  not  necessarily  mean  a 
building  located  against  a  bank.  It  may  be  built  on  the 
level  prairie  as  well  as  against  the  side  of  a  hill.  It  may 
be  built  entirely  of  wood  or  other  material.  Materials 
other  than  wood  for  the  lower  story  may  keep  out  the 
cold  more  effectively  than  wood,  but  good  siding  and 
one  thickness  of  tar  paper  will  keep  a  sheep  house  amply 
warm,  save  for  new-born  lambs  in  a  cold  climate.  Such  a 
structure  does  not  necessarily  call  for  a  driveway  into  the 
upper  story,  as  the  food  is  lifted  by  machinery. 

Whether  a  sheep  house  should  be  built  against  a 
bank  under  any  conditions  is  a  disputed  question.  If 
such  a  basement  can  be  made  to  secure  freedom  from 
dampness  and  also  from  an  undue  lack  of  light,  there 
should  be  no  objection  to  it.  It  is  quite  possible  in  many 
instances  to  secure  both.  Such  a  basement  may  also 
bring  with  it  the  following  advantages:  (i)  It  may  be 


332  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

made  to  furnish  an  excellent  place  for  the  birth  of  young 
lambs  by  simply  penning  off  such  an  apartment;  (2)  it 
makes  it  possible  to  locate  the  sites  where  it  will  be  con- 
venient to  feed  from  it  and  where  the  lower  portion  may 
have  protection  from  the  frost;  (3)  it  makes  it  easily 
possible  to  make  a  safe  storehouse  for  roots  at  little  cost. 
Should  a  basement,  however,  be  damp,  it  should  not  be 
used  for  housing  sheep. 

Facilities  for  convenient  feeding — When  the  facilities 
for  convenient  feeding  are  what  they  should  be,  the  sav- 
ing in  labor  will  thereby  be  greatly  reduced.  These  in- 
clude: (i)  Feed  racks  and  their  location;  (2)  a  feed  room 
and  its  location ;  (3)  a  root  cellar  and  its  location ;  (4)  a 
silo  and  its  location ;  and  (5)  the  feeding  of  hay  and  the 
furnishing  of  litter  at  a  minimum  of  cost  for  labor. 

The  feed  racks  are,  as  a  rule,  placed  just  inside  the 
passages.  This  makes  it  easily  possible  to  feed  from  the 
passages  where  the  fodder  comes  down  from  the  loft  over- 
head into  the  passages ;  when  the  fodder  comes  down  into 
the  passages,  and  where  the  racks  are  of  proper  construc- 
tion, the  fodder  may  be  fed  without  injury  to  the  fleece 
from  the  chaffy  particles  in  the  fodder.  For  the  construc- 
tion of  such  a  rack,  see  Fig.  15.  In  other  instances  the 
racks,  when  movable  and  of  the  right  length,  may  serve 
the  purpose  of  partitions  between  the  divisions  and  of 
racks  at  the  same  time.  In  other  instances  the  racks  for 
fodder  are  placed  in  the  yards,  and  in  many  instances  of 
range  feeding  they  are  placed  along  the  outer  border  of 
the  yards.  This  admits  of  rilling  them  from  without  and 
with  fodder  that  in  quantity  will  last  for  several  days.  This 
way  of  feeding  fodders  is  not  ideal,  but  the  high  price  of 
labor  during  recent  years  makes  it  in  some  instances  a 
necessity.  It  is  not  an  ideal  way  of  feeding  sheep  when 
the  fodder  will  suffice  for  more  than  a  day,  but  there  may 
be  instances  in  which  it  is  admissible  to  furnish  fodders 
that  will  last  for  several  days. 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND    WINTER  333 

Every  sheep  house  with  a  large  number  of  sheep  in 
it  should  have  a  large  feed  room  in  which  food  may  be 
prepared  for  the  use  of  the  flock.  The  preparation  of  the 
food  for  sheep  is  very  simple.  In  many  instances  the 
grain  does  not  need  to  be  ground  to  make  it  suitable  for 
the  sheep.  They  grind  it  very  effectively  in  the  process 
of  consuming  it,  or  in  the  process  of  rumination  that  fol- 
lows. But  there  are  instances  in  which  it  may  be  profit- 
able to  feed  fodders  in  the  cut  form  and  mixed  with 
grains.  In  such  instances  a  feed  room  may,  in  a  sense, 
be  a  necessity.  The  location  for  the  same  will  be  influ- 
enced by  the  plan  of  the  divisions  in  the  shed.  In  some 
instances  the  feed  room  is  located  in  one  end  of  the  shed 
on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  passageway,  and  in  other  in- 
stances on  only  one  side.  When  the  silo  is  located  at  the 
side  of  the  building  and  near  the  center,  the  feed  room 
should  be  centrally  located,  but  should  the  silo  be  at  one 
end  or  corner  of  the  same,  then  the  feed  room  should  be 
located  at  or  near  the  end,  with  a  view  to  facilitate  the 
blending  of  foods,  when  this  may  be  necessary  or  ad- 
visable. 

The  location  of  the  root  cellar  is  influenced  by  the 
location  of  the  feed  room.  If  the  roots  are  to  be  pulped 
or  sliced,  and  in  many  instances  they  are  thus  fed,  the  best 
place  for  such  pulping  or  slicing  is  in  the  feed  room.  This 
means,  therefore,  that  the  root  cellar  should  be  under  the 
feed  room  or  adjacent  thereto.  In  cold  climates  where 
the  feed  room  is  near  one  end  of  the  building,  the  most 
convenient  place  for  the  root  cellar,  all  things  considered, 
is  underneath  the  feed  room.  The  roots  may  thus  be 
easily  protected  from  frost.  Where  the  sheep  house  is 
placed  against  a  bank,  and  where  the  feed  room  is  located 
centrally  on  one  side,  both  the  silo  and  the  root  cellar 
should  be  located  in  the  bank  and  so  as  to  open  into  the 
feed  room.  Such  an  arrangement  greatly  facilitates  the 
blending  of  foods,  should  this  be  desired.  Where  but  a 
limited  quantity  of  roots  is  fed,  however,  it  may  be  ad- 


334  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

vantageous  in  some  instances  to  store  them  where  they 
may  be  taken  from  a  cellar  located  in  a  bank  or  pit,  not 
too  distant  from  the  place  of  feeding.  In  other  instances 
they  are  stored  in  a  division  of  the  lower  story  adjacent 
to  the  feed  room.  This  storage  room  is  protected  from  in- 
tense cold  by  siding  and  tar  paper.  The  only  tangible  ob- 
jection to  such  an  arrangement  is  the  room  which  it  occu- 
pies, which  in  its  absence  could  be  used  as  a  division  for 
sheep. 

When  a  silo  is  used,  it  should  be  located  near  the  feed 
room,  though  the  latter  should  be  located  at  one  end  of 
the  shed,  or  centrally  on  one  side  of  the  same.  In  a  shed 
placed  against  a  bank  no  better  place  can  be  found  for 
the  silo  than  in  the  bank  and  in  proximity  to  the  centrally 
located  feed  room.  When  the  silage  to  be  fed  is  thus 
thrown  down  into  the  feed  room  it  is  protected  against 
frost,  and  it  may  be  thus  easily  mingled  with  other  foods 
should  this  be  desired.  But  in  many  instances  such  mix- 
ing is  not  deemed  necessary. 

In  no  way  can  fodder  be  furnished  so  conveniently  as 
when  it  is  stored  in  a  suitable  loft  above  the  pens  and 
when  it  comes  down  into  a  passageway  from  which  it 
may  be  conveniently  fed.  But  it  may  also  be  fed  from  a 
wagon  driven  through  the  passageway,  where  large  quan- 
tities are  to  be  fed.  In  practically  rainless  climates,  in  the 
winter  season,  it  may  be  fed  from  racks  that  are  not  pro- 
tected from  climatic  influences  and  located  on  the  outside 
of  the  yards,  thus  making  it  convenient  to  feed  fodders 
thrown  into  the  racks  from  outside  sources.  Into  these 
racks  enough  of  food  is  placed  at  one  time  to  last  for  sev- 
eral days.  They  are  so  shaped  as  to  act  in  a  sense  as  self- 
feeders.  Theoretically  such  feeding  is  unwise,  as  it  is 
more  or  less  wasteful  of  food,  and  the  palatability  of  the 
fodder  is  thereby  also  reduced.  Notwithstanding,  where 
large  bands  are  to  be  fed  in  dry  areas,  such  a  system  of 
feeding  is  not  to  be  condemned. 

Litter  may  be  very  conveniently  furnished  from  a 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND    WINTER  335 

loft,  providing  it  has  been  stored  there.  In  many  in- 
stances, however,  there  may  not  be  room  for  such  storage 
until  some  of  the  food  is  fed  out.  It  may  then  be  drawn 
from  a  stack  on  a  still  day  and  stored  in  the  loft.  When 
thus  stored  it  may  always  be  kept  in  a  dry  condition, 
which  in  bedding  is  a  great  matter.  When  straw  is  fed  in 
the  racks,  which  is  quite  legitimate  in  many  instances,  in 
order  to  furnish  a  part  of  the  fodder,  the  uneaten  residue 
may  be  used  from  time  to  time  for  bedding. 

Divisions  in  the  lower  story — Several  divisions  in  the 
lower  story  are  necessary  where  a  flock  of  any  consider- 
able size  is  kept.  The  different  gradations  call  for  food 
rations  that  in  many  instances  are  more  or  less  different. 
For  instance  the  stock  and  sale  rams  may  call  for  a  food 
different  from  the  breeding  ewes.  These  may  call  for 
food  different  from  the  shearling  ewes,  and  all  of  these 
may  call  for  food  different  from  ewes  that  are  suckling 
lambs.  Where  sheep  are  being  fattened  in  considerable 
numbers,  it  may  also  be  greatly  advantageous  to  grade 
the  sheep  according  to  size  and  age. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  there  should  be  some 
correspondence  between  the  number  of  the  divisions  and 
the  gradations  in  the  flock.  The  larger  the  number  of  the 
latter  the  larger  the  number  of  the  divisions  should  be. 
During  the  lambing  season  it  is  an  advantage  to  have 
some  extra  divisions  for  the  better  grading  of  ewes  that 
are  nursing  lambs.  The  space  called  for  in  such  divisions 
is  influenced  by  such  considerations  as  the  size  of  the 
sheep,  the  object  for  which  they  are  being  kept  and  the 
yard  room  available,  when  considered  along  with  the 
climatic  conditions.  For  large  sheep  not  fewer  than  15 
square  feet  of  space  should  be  furnished  and  for  small 
sheep  not  fewer  than  10  feet.  Lambs  that  are  being  fat- 
tened with  abundant  yard  room  and  in  a  dry  climate  will 
do  with  even  a  less  amount  of  space. 

If  some  or  all  of  the  partitions  are  movable,  the 
divisions  may  be  enlarged.  It  may  be  very  convenient  in 


336  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

some  instances  to  be  able  to  enlarge  or  reduce  the  size  of 
the  divisions  at  will.  The  aim  should  be,  of  course,  to 
give  the  sheep  all  the  room  that  can  be  secured  at  all  times. 

Warm  lambing  pens — When  lambs  come  in  the  win- 
ter season,  the  necessity  for  a  warm  lambing  pen  is  im- 
perative. When  such  a  division  is  found  in  the  basement 
of  a  shed  that  is  located  against  a  bank  the  problem  is 
easy.  The  lambing  pen  may  be  located  almost  anywhere 
in  the  basement,  but  it  is  some  advantage  to  have  it 
located  on  the  sunny  side,  so  that  some  sunshine  may  be 
admitted  into  the  lambing  pen.  When  it  is  made  in  a 
wooden  structure,  it  must  be  made  to  resist  the  ready 
penetrations  of  low  temperatures,  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  sheeting  closely  on  the  outside  and  inside  of 
the  studding  with  boards  and  putting  tar  paper  under- 
neath one  or  both  sides  of  the  same,  according  to  the 
severity  of  the  winter  weather.  In  such  an  apartment 
lambs  may  come  safely  when  the  thermometer  is  40  de- 
grees below  zero,  providing  the  dams  are  healthy  and 
strong.  The  exact  location  of  the  lambing  pen  is  largely 
a  matter  of  convenience,  but  the  aim  should  be  to  locate 
it  on  the  sunny  and  sheltered  side  of  the  building.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  to  provide  the  necessary  ventilation. 

The  furnishings  of  a  lambing  pen  may  consist  of  a 
number  of  small  inclosures  made  of  fencing  material. 
These  may  be  movable.  In  these  the  ewes  and  their 
lambs  may  be  kept  singly,  and  in  some  instances  in  twos 
or  threes,  and  graded  according  to  the  age  of  the  lambs ; 
but  more  commonly  they  are  kept  singly  for  two  or  three 
days  until  the  lambs  get  strong.  They  are  then  taken  to 
another  division  to  make  room  for  ewes  with  younger 
lambs  or  with  lambs  not  yet  born. 

Facilities  for  watering — In  areas  where  a  living 
stream  with  pebbled  beds  runs  through  or  in  proximity 
to  the  yards,  it  may  be  made  to  furnish  water  in  suitable 
form,  providing  ice  does  not  form  along  the  edges  of  the 
stream.  But  where  ice  forms  sheep  will  not  readily  drink 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP    SUMMER  AND   WINTER  337 

from  openings  in  the  same,  hence  they  should  not  be  re- 
quired to  do  so.  Where  large  flocks  are  kept,  it  is  very 
convenient  to  draw  the  water  from  taps  attached  to 
hydrants.  In  such  instances  it  may  be  drawn  into  a 
trough  suitably  located  under  cover,  but  when  it  can  be 
drawn  from  a  tap  into  a  tub  located  within  each  division 
the  furnishing  of  water  is  greatly  simplified.  Even  when 
the  water  comes  from  but  one  tap  or  from  a  pump,  where 
the  flocks  are  small,  the  plan  is  a  good  one  which  carries 
it  in  a  pail  when  the  water  in  the  tubs  is  to  be  replenished. 

The  tubs  should  be  of  low  construction,  so  that  the 
sheep  may  readily  take  water  from  them.  When  the 
weather  is  cold,  the  water  may  be  emptied  out  of  the 
buckets  at  nightfall,  and  they  may  be  replenished  again 
the  next  day.  In  this  way  the  tubs  may  easily  be  kept 
clean.  The  water  thus  emptied  out  does  no  harm  virtu- 
ally to  the  litter,  because  of  the  smallness  of  the  quantity. 
The  plan  is  not  good  which  draws  the  water  into  a  trough 
in  which  it  freezes  over  quite  frequently  when  the  weather 
is  cold,  as  sheep  do  not  care  to  drink  water  that  is  thus 
icy  cold  unless  impelled  to  by  thirst.  But  water  may  be 
thus  provided  in  some  instances  with  advantage  when  the 
trough  is  so  sheltered  that  ice  does  not  readily  form  on 
the  water. 

It  is  greatly  important  to  furnish  water  to  sheep  in 
winter  when  they  are  getting  only  dry  food,  even  though 
they  may  have  access  to  clean  snow.  It  is  even  more  im- 
portant that  the  water  given  to  them  shall  be  pure  and 
free  from  taint.  When  it  is  not  furnished,  they  will  drink 
from  small  pools  adjacent  to  the  yards  when  the  snow 
melts.  When  they  take  water  thus  the  hazard  is  present 
that  they  may  take  up  disease  germs  that  may  lead  to 
serious  loss.  Sheep  should  never  be  allowed  to  take  water 
from  such  sources  when  this  can  be  prevented. 

Sunlight,  yard  room  and  paddocks — When  locating  a 
sheep  shed,  the  question  of  sunlight  should  receive  the 
most  careful  consideration.  The  same  is  true  in  regard 


338  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

to  the  location  and  size  of  the  yards,  and  also  in  relation 
to  the  location  and  size  of  the  paddocks. 

With  regard  to  sunlight,  the  conclusion  may  be 
hastily  reached  that  the  part  which  it  plays  in  successful 
sheep  husbandry  is  unimportant.  Such  a  conclusion  is 
far  from  correct.  Sunshine  when  properly  focused,  espe 
cially  in  the  lambing  pens,  may  in  many  instances  make 
the  difference  between  life  and  death  in  relation  to  the 
survival  of  newly  born  lambs.  The  free  access  of  sun- 
light is  destructive  to  disease  germs,  whatsoever  may  be 
their  nature.  It  tends  to  strengthen  and  sustain  life 
wherever  it  comes.  These  truths  find  recognition  in  the 
practice  which  gives  the  weaker  animals  of  the  flock,  as 
the  ewes  and  lambs,  the  occupancy  of  the  apartments  on 
the  sunny  side  of  the  building  and  locates  the  stronger 
animals,  as  shearling  ewes  and  rams,  in  apartments  on 
the  shady  side  of  the  same. 

There  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion  with  reference 
to  the  size  of  the  yards  to  which  sheep  have  access,  but 
there  should  be  no  difference  of  opinion  with  reference 
to  their  location.  In  regard  to  the  former  it  may  be  said 
that  roomy  yards  are  preferable  under  dry  conditions,  but 
where  there  is  much  precipitation,  reasonably  small  yards 
are  to  be  preferred,  as  they  call  for  a  less  amount  of  litter 
to  keep  them  clean  and  dry  and  a  less  frequent  removal  of 
the  same.  In  regard  to  the  latter,  where  yards  are  located 
on  but  one  side  of  the  shed,  the  sunny  side  should,  of 
course,  be  given  the  preference.  But  yards  on  the  shady 
side  may  be  very  necessary  sometimes,  and  they  may  also 
serve  a  very  useful  purpose.  When  the  yards  are  fur- 
nished with  movable  partitions,  the  number  of  those 
divisions  in  use  at  one  time  may  be  increased  or  de- 
creased to  suit  present  convenience.  When  the  yards  are 
narrow,  the  partitions  may  be  made  to  lift  out.  When 
they  are  wide,  the  partitions  must  be  in  part  permanent, 
each  being  provided  with  a  gate.  In  some  instances  the 
possible  number  of  divisions  in  the  yards  is  the  same  as 


SHELTER    FOR    SHEEP    SUMMER  AND    WINTER  339 

the  number  of  the  divisions  in  the  pens,  each  pen  having 
its  own  corresponding  yard. 

The  number  of  the  paddocks  and  their  location  will, 
of  course,  be  determined  in  a  great  measure  by  such  con- 
ditions as  the  size  of  the  flock  and  the  gradations  of  the 
same,  and  by  the  object  for  which  it  is  being  kept.  The 
size  of  the  paddocks  should  ordinarily  bear  some  propor- 
tion to  the  size  of  the  flock  and  to  the  divisions  in  the 
same.  The  more  the  gradations  in  flock,  the  more  is  the 
number  of  the  paddocks  that  are  called  for;  but  it  does 
not  follow  that  as  many  paddocks  are  called  as  there  are 
divisions  in  the  flock,  as  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  have  all 
the  gradations  in  the  paddocks  at  the  same  time;  hence 
the  same  paddock  may  be  used  by  more  than  one  division 
of  the  sheep.  In  some  instances  they  may  be  reached 
from  the  yards  directly,  but  more  commonly  they  are 
ranged  on  both  sides  of  a  lane  leading  out  from  the  yards. 
In  this  way  they  may  be  increased  in  number  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  needs,  and  they  may  also  be  of  such  size  as 
may  be  deemed  proper.  They  are  thus  rendered  easily 
accessible. 

Ventilation  without  drafts — Ventilation  is  necessary 
and  greatly  important  under  all  conditions,  but  artificial 
ventilation  is  not  always  a  necessity.  Sheep  cannot  be 
given  too  much  fresh  air,  providing  it  comes  to  them  in 
the  absence  of  drafts,  but  they  may  very  easily  be  given 
too  little.  No  class  of  live  stock  will  suffer  more  in  the 
absence  of  adequate  ventilation. 

It  is  always  necessary  to  provide  artificial  ventilation 
when  sheep  are  housed  in  a  shed  the  doors  of  which  are 
closed  for  even  a  period  of  short  duration,  when  it  is 
occupied  by  sheep.  In  but  few  ways  can  disaster  be  more 
quickly  brought  to  a  flock  than  by  housing  them  in  close 
quarters  in  the  absence  of  sufficient  ventilation.  They 
are  harmed,  first,  by  a  lack  of  a  sufficiency  of  pure  air; 
second,  by  the  excessive  warmth  that  is  usually  gener- 
ated under  such  conditions,  and  which  is  especially  harm- 


340  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ful  to  sheep  with  heavy  fleeces,  whether  short  or  long; 
and,  third,  by  the  catarrhal  troubles  which  are  generated 
when  the  flock  emerges  from  such  warm  surroundings 
into  an  atmosphere  of  low  temperatures. 

Artificial  ventilation  is  not  called  for  where  sheep  are 
housed  in,  or  rather  are  protected  by  a  shed  that  is  open 
in  front,  and  in  which  they  are  given  free  access  to  yards 
in  front  of  the  shed.  Rest  in  a  shed  under  such  conditions 
is  not  greatly  different  from  resting  overnight  in  an  un- 
covered yard.  In  such  instances,  however,  there  should 
be  no  open  windows  or  doors  at  the  ends  or  rear  of  such 
a  structure  that  would  produce  air  currents  when  it  is 
occupied  with  sheep  while  the  temperature  is  low. 

In  sheep  houses  of  ordinary  construction,  which  con- 
sist of  but  one  story  and  which  have  doors  only  on  the  lee 
side,  with  windows  that  may  be  opened  on  occasion  on 
the  other  side,  by  keeping  the  doors  open,  enough  fresh 
air  will  ordinarily  be  secured.  Should  the  wind  blow 
from  what  is  ordinarily  the  lee  side,  ventilation  may  be 
secured  by  closing  the  doors  and  opening  the  rear  win- 
dows. 

Should  the  sheep  house  have  divisions  on  both  sides 
of  a  passage  which  runs  lengthwise  through  it,  then  the 
plan  is  good  which  has  doors  and  windows  on  both  sides 
of  the  house.  Fresh  air  may  be  admitted  by  opening  the 
doors  or  windows,  or  both,  on  one  side  only,  according 
as  the  wind  may  blow.  In  this  way  fresh  air  may  be  ad- 
mitted at  all  times  and  in  abundant  supply,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  18.  When  there  is  a  loft  overhead,  the  shutes  which 
extend  upward  in  the  same  may  be  made  to  render  sub- 
stantial service  in  carrying  away  the  warm  air.  Except 
in  very  still  and  mild  weather  the  windows  or  doors,  or 
both,  should  only  be  open  on  one  side  at  the  same  time. 

Ventilation  in  the  rear  divisions  of  a  basement  is  not 
so  easily  secured  when  these  have  a  bank  of  earth  on  one 
side.  Usually,  however,  windows  may  be  secured,  if 
placed  high,  though  in  some  instances  it  may  be  necessary 


SHELTER  FOR   SHEEP  SUMMER  AND   WINTER  341 

to  remove  a  circle  of  earth  from  around  the  window  to 
admit  light  as  well  as  air.  Further  ventilation  may  be 
secured  by  carrying  cold  air  down  through  wooden  box 
tubes  from  the  outside  and  warm  air  up  by  what  is  known 
as  the  "King  System"  of  ventilation.  This  whole  ques- 
tion, however,  is  even  now  much  controverted. 

Plans  of  sheep  houses — The  plans  of  sheep  sheds  are 
many  and  diverse,  and  much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  a 
goodly  number  of  these,  could  the  necessary  space  be  se- 
cured. At  this  time,  however,  but  three  plans  will  be 
submitted.  These  are  intended :  (i)  To  meet  the  needs  of 
an  ordinary  farm  flock ;  (2)  to  meet  those  of  a  large  farm 
flock;  and  (3)  of  a  large  breeding  flock.  These  are  of 
simple  construction,  and  experience  has  put  the  stamp  of 
approval  on  them.  They  are  not  submitted  as  absolute 
guides,  but  rather  to  furnish  ideas  that  may  be  found 
helpful  when  sheep  sheds  are  to  be  constructed. 

There  are,  of  course,  instances  when  sheds  are  not 
necessary,  or  rather  where  it  is  possible  to  engage  in  cer- 
tain phases  of  sheep  husbandry  in  their  absence.  In  the 
dry  and  mild  areas  of  the  West  they  are  frequently  fat- 
tened under  the  canopy  of  the  skies.  Even  in  areas  with 
winters  cold  and  dry  and  with  a  snowfall  not  too  heavy, 
they  are  sometimes  fattened  without  other  shelter  than 
that  of  a  grove.  But  in  all,  or  nearly  all,  instances  where 
breeding  flocks  are  kept  under  American  conditions,  it  is 
a  great  convenience,  though  not  an  absolute  necessity,  to 
have  a  shed  that  will  provide  shelter  and  more  or  less  of 
storage  for  food. 

Fig.  16  submits  the  ground  plan  of  a  sheep  shed 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  what  may  be  termed  an  ordinary 
farm  flock.  The  building  is  72  feet  long  and  24  feet  wide. 
It  is  divided  into  six  equal  parts  on  the  ground  floor, 
excluding  the  passage  which  runs  the  whole  length  on 
the  one  side.  This  passage,  4  feet  wide,  is  designed  to 
afford  easy  access  for  the  attendant  from  one  division  to 
another,  and  it  also  affords  a  ready  means  of  removing 


34^ 


MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 


individual  animals  from  one  pen  to  another.  In  other 
instances  it  admits  of  carrying  food  or  litter  from  the  feed 
box  in  one  division  to  be  fed  or  strewn  in  another.  The 
size  of  the  respective  divisions  is  shown  in  the  plan.  Of 
the  main  divisions  only  two  are  permanent,  viz.,  those 
which  separate  the  lambing  pens  from  the  pens  adjacent 
to  them.  The  lambing  pens  should  be  boarded  up  to  the 
ceiling  to  insure  sufficient  warmth,  and  may  in  addition, 
if  necessary,  be  covered  with  tar  paper.  The  three  cen- 

7-2± 


\. 


sheep  yard  10  ftwide 


PADDOCKS 


FIG.  16— GROUND  PLAN  OF  SHEEP  BARN  FOR  AN  ORDINARY  FARM  FLOCK 

tral  divisions  may  have  movable  double  feeding  racks  be- 
tween them,  should  this  be  desired.  Two  of  these  are 
placed  in  line,  end  to  end,  between  each  division.  By  re- 
moving these  racks,  much  of  the  building  may  virtually 
be  converted  into  an  open  shed,  since  the  doors  are  6  to  7 
feet  wide,  or  by  removing  one  or  more  of  the  racks  on  the 
yard  side  of  the  building  and  inclosing  the  open  space  at 
the  ends  of  those  which  remain.  One  part  of  the  build- 
ing may  be  used  as  an  open  shed,  and  any  divisions  thus 
inclosed  would  answer  for  keeping  the  stock  ram  in  it  sep- 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND   WINTER  343 

arate  from  the  ewes,  and  also  any  rams  that  may  be  on 
hand.  From  the  small  boxes  or  receptacles  underneath 
the  shutes  fodder  can  be  readily  obtained.  The  number 
of  these  may  be  reduced  to  three  if  absolutely  necessary, 
one  box  serving  to  hold  fodder  for  two  apartments.  The 
shutes  are  near  the  side  of  the  building,  and  though  they 
extend  up  into  the  mow  for  some  distance,  they  do  not 
seriously  interfere  with  the  storing  of  food  or  litter  over- 
head, as  it  may  be  taken  in  by  a  horse  fork  or  a  sling  at 
the  end  of  the  building  and  underneath  the  ridge. 

The  posts  of  the  building  should  be  of  any  desired 
length  in  keeping  with  the  symmetry  of  the  same.  A 
height  of  14  to  16  feet  would  usually  be  ample.  There 
should  be  room  in  the  loft  to  hold  at  least  a  supply  of 
fodder  for  one  season,  and  if  there  is  room  for  a  supply 
of  litter  also  the  condition  is  to  that  extent  more  satis- 
factory. Grain  may  also  be  stored  in  the  loft  over  the 
shepherd's  room.  By  using  hoppers  or  hopper-shaped 
bins  above,  ducts  leading  from  these,  and  spouts  below, 
which  may  be  opened  and  closed  at  will,  a  supply  of  grain 
can  always  be  conveniently  obtained.  The  siding  may 
be  composed  of  boards  with  battens  over  the  cracks,  or  it 
may  consist  of  ordinary  drop  siding,  with  or  without  a 
lining  of  tarred  or  building  paper  inside,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. When  the  lambing  pens  are  properly  made, 
wood  lining  may  not  be  necessary  on  the  inside  of  the 
walls  under  some  conditions,  but  more  commonly  it  will 
be  necessary  in  northern  areas  in  order  to  make  the  pens 
sufficiently  warm.  It  may  not  always  be  necessary  to 
use  so  much  space  in  the  lambing  pens,  and  when  the 
lambs  come  late  these  can  be  dispensed  with  altogether. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  shepherd's  room. 

The  yard  may  be  readily  divided  by  running  across 
it  one  or  more  movable  partitions,  thus  making  as  many 
divisions  in  the  yard  as  may  be  desired.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  provision  is  made  for  gates  at  the  ends  of  the 
yard,  hence  a  wagon  may  be  driven  in  front  of  the  divi- 


344 


MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 


sions  for  the  easy  removal  of  the  manure.  Through  the 
gates  which  open  from  the  paddocks  into  the  yards,  or 
from  the  yards  into  the  paddocks,  ingress  or  egress  is 
easy. 

Fig.  17  gives  the  ground  plan  of  a  shed  which  will 
meet  the  needs  of  a  large  flock  kept  under  ordinary  farm 
conditions.  It  nearly  incloses  three  sides  of  a  rectangle 

or  square,  according  as 
the  side  wings  are  long 
or  short.  The  buildings 

A     I  |     p.    I      at  the  corners  are  for 

the  storage  of  fodder  or 
B  ^E"08^»>e«.Re«Ttox««»«    Jj*""       grain.     They  are  24  x 

C'CCtC   H/n  C«uTt»  .  -  - 

24  feet  and  the  posts 
are  18  feet  high,  but 
these  dimensions,  as 

Lalso  those  submitted 
later,  may  be  modified 
to  meet  more  exactly 
the  requirements.  But 
there  should  always  be 
a  proper  relation  be- 
tween the  storage  room 
in  the  buildings  and  the 

feeding  requirements  in  the  sheds.  The  two  long  sheds  are 
1 6  x  80  feet  and  the  shorter  one,  which,  of  course,  may  be 
larger,  is  16  x  40  feet.  The  roof  of  the  sheds  between  the 
buildings  for  storage  may  be  given  but  one  slant,  in  which 
case  the  height  of  the  same  at  the  rear  plate  does  not 
need  to  exceed  7  feet.  But  a  ridge  roof  may  be  preferable. 
When  the  sheds  have  a  loft  running  along  the  whole  of 
the  length,  or  a  part  of  the  same,  and  with  sufficient 
capacity  to  store  enough  litter  to  supply  the  flock  during 
all  the  winter,  such  storage  will  be  found  a  great  conveni- 
ence during  the  period  of  winter  feeding.  When  the  roof 
of  the  shed  is  given  but  one  slant,  the  bedding  may  be  re- 
ceived into  the  loft  through  windows  on  the  yard  side. 


FIG.  17— PLAN  OF  SHEEP  BARN  WITH 
YARD  PROTECTION 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND   WINTER  345 

The  location  of  the  lambing  pens  and  of  the  root  cellar 
is  shown  in  the  engraving,  but  should  occasion  call  for 
it  there  may  be  a  lambing  pen  in  each  of  the  structures 
which  will  hold  fodder,  and  two  root  cellars,  one  below  each 
of  the  corner  structures,  would  be  a  great  convenience  when 
feeding  the  roots.  The  feeding  racks,  D,  are  placed  along 
the  front  of  the  sheds,  but  they  may  be  placed  toward  the 
rear,  or  as  desired.  The  hay  chutes  come  down  into  in- 
closures  of  suitable  height  at  C.  The  size  of  these  must 
be  adjusted  to  the  amounts  of  the  fodder  called  for,  but 
they  should  be  amply  large.  The  feed  bin,  B,  10  x  12  feet, 
is  shown  in  the  sketch,  and  to  the  rear  of  it  is  a  stairway 
leading  to  the  root  cellar,  which  is  underneath  the  lamb- 
ing pen.  The  loft  over  the  feed  room  and  the  lambing 
pen  should  have  a  tight  floor.  The  sheds  may  be  divided 
by  movable  partitions,  and  the  yard  may  also  be  sub- 
divided by  movable  fences. 

The  following  are  among  the  advantages  of  such  a 
structure:  (i)  It  furnishes  shelter  for  a  large  flock  of 
sheep  and  storage  room  for  food  and  litter  for  the  same 
at  relatively  small  cost.  (2)  It  furnishes  permanent  shel- 
ter against  the  winds,  virtually  without  cost,  and  it  is 
shelter  of  the  most  effective  kind.  (3)  It  makes  it  easily 
possible  to  get  abundant  paddock  room  by  placing  the 
paddocks  at  the  rear  of  the  buildings.  The  sheep  may  be 
admitted  into  these  directly  from  the  sheds. 

Fig.  18  shows  the  ground  plan  of  a  sheep  house 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  a  large  breeding  flock  kept  under 
farm  conditions.  It  represents  the  ground  plan  of  the 
sheep  barn  at  the  Minnesota  experiment  farm.  A  build- 
ing of  the  same  dimensions  may  be  too  costly  for  an 
average  breeding  flock  on  the  ordinary  farm,  but  the  same 
is  not  true  of  it  where  a  large  breeding  flock  is  to  be  main- 
tained for  a  term  of  years.  There  are  certain  features 
about  the  plan  which  can  be  profitably  utilized  by  the 
flockmaster  when  erecting  shelter  for  sheep  on  a  much 
smaller  scale. 


346 


MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 


The  building  was  planned  by  the  author  with  a  view 
to  breeding  and  also  to  feeding  sheep  in  an  experimental 
way.  It  is  no  feet  long  and  36  feet  wide.  The  posts  are 
14  feet  high,  but  should  be  16  feet  as  designed  by  the 
author.  On  one  side  of  the  front  end  entrance  is  a  silo, 
and  on  the  other  a  wool  room,  which  may  also  serve  as  a 
shepherd's  room  in  winter,  should  this  be  desired.  The 
next  two  apartments  are  lambing  pens,  one  on  either  side. 
The  following  divisions  are  for  the  sheep,  on  both  sides  of 


FIG.   13— GROUND  PLAN  OF  SHEEP  BARN  AT  THE  MINNESOTA  EXPERIMENT 

STATION 

the  passage,  which  is  6  feet  wide  and  runs  from  end  to 
end  of  the  building,  but  not  in  the  center.  This  was 
planned  so  that  the  chutes  which  bring  the  fodders  from 
above  would  not  interfere  with  the  working  of  the  horse 
fork,  when  taking  in  food  from  the  end  of  the  building. 
On  one  side  of  the  passage  five  divisions  are  located  20x18 
feet.  These  open  into  yards  on  the  shady  side  of  the 
building.  Sheep  for  experimental  uses  were  kept  in  these. 
On  the  farm  such  members  of  the  flock  as  are  not  good 
to  produce  lambs  could  be  kept  in  them.  They  could  be 
reduced  in  size  by  placing  the  passage  toward  that  side 


SHELTER    FOR    SHEEP   SUMMER  AND    WINTER  347 

of  the  building,  and  this  would  proportionately  enlarge 
the  pens-  on  the  other  side.  On  the  side  of  the  passage 
opposite  to  the  large  pens  is  one  20  x  12  feet  and  eight 
12  x  10  feet.  These  are  for  ewes  in  lamb  and  they  open 
on  the  sunny  side  of  the  building. 

It  will  be  observed  that  each  of  the  partitions  is  mov- 
able. They  may  be  lifted  only  far  enough  to  serve  the 
purpose  of  a  lamb  creep,  or  they  may  be  lifted  out  so  as 
to  enlarge  the  pens.  When  thus  lifted  out,  a  wagon  may 
be  driven  right  through  the  divisions  from  end  to  end  for 
the  removal  of  the  manure.  Ingress  for  the  wagon  is 
made  by  the  double  doors,  7^  x  7  feet,  at  the  ends  of 
the  building  and  egress  for  the  same  into  the  yards  in 
the  divisions  remote  from  the  plan  of  entrance. 

Such  apartment  on  the  sunny  side  has  a  window, 
and  on  the  shady  side  each  has  two.  The  size  of  the  win- 
dows is  30  x  26  inches,  and  they  are  made  to  slide  up 
and  down.  Each  apartment  is  also  furnished  with  a  door 
cut  in  twain  across  the  middle.  These  doors,  3x6  inches 
across,  open  outward.  The  feeding  racks  run  along  the 
passage  on  each  side  of  the  same.  A  door  opens  from  the 
passage  into  each  division  of  the  shed.  It  is  2  feet,  8 
inches  wide,  and  2  feet  10  inches  high,  which  is  2  inches 
less  than  the  height  of  the  lining  on  both  sides  of  the 
passage.  The  walls  are  boarded  up  with  deep  siding 
nailed  on  to  the  studs  with  building  paper  underneath 
the  siding.  The  floor  is  simply  of  earth,  except  in  the 
feed  room,  the  shepherd's  room  and  the  passage. 

The  fodder  and  litter  may  be  taken  in  at  the  ends  of 
the  loft  or  through  doors  at  the  sides  of  the  same.  Both 
the  fodder  and  litter  come  down  through  chutes  into  the 
passage  below.  These  chutes,  three  in  number  are  22  x  32 
inches  and  they  are  suitably  spaced.  As  they  extend  up- 
ward they  slant  toward  one  side  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
the  action  of  the  horse  fork.  When  the  different  kinds  of 
fodder  are  suitably  stored  in  sections  in  the  loft,  they  are 
at  all  times  accessible.  Should  it  be  desired,  the  apart- 


348 


MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 


ments  may  be  littered  from  a  wagon  driven  in  front  of  the 
pens.  The  loft  has  a  tight  floor. 

Water  is  brought  in  by  means  of  pipes  connected 
with  the  water  system  that  supplies  the  buildings.  In 
the  absence  of  such  a  system  it  could,  of  course,  be  in- 
troduced through  means  of  a  well,  a  windmill  and  a  tank. 
It  is  drawn  from  hydrants  into  pails,  as  needed,  and  the 
sheep  drink  from  shallow  buckets  in  the  divisions.  These 
may  be  kept  clean  by  overturning  them  daily. 

The  silo,  as  will  be  observed,  is  circular.  It  is  24  feet 
high  and  12  feet  across.  The  staves  are  2x3  inches,  and 


FIG.  19— SHEEP  BARN   AT  THE   MINNESOTA    EXPERIMENT   STATION 

these  are  tongued  and  grooved,  which  is  not  now  consid- 
ered necessary.  It  is  girded  around  with  15  hoops  of 
^-inch  band  iron,  3  inches  broad.  Twelve  hoops  suitably 
spaced  would  probably  prove  ample.  The  bottom  hoop 
is  just  above  the  floor  and  the  distance  between  the  hoops 
increases  somewhat  as  they  extend  upward.  Hinged 
doors  open  into  a  chute  extending  upward  on  the  side 
next  to  the  feed  room.  These  would  better  serve  the  pur- 
pose if  they  were  not  hinged,  but  rather  fitted  in  from  the 
inside,  the  edges  being  beveled.  The  size  suitable  for 


SHELTER   FOR   SHEEP   SUMMER  AND   WINTER  349 

such  a  box  chute  is  24  x  37  inches,  and  it  should  have 
a  ladder  within  attached  to  one  side.  The  doors  may  be 
24  inches  long  and  18  inches  broad.  The  floor  consists  of 
two  thicknesses  of  brick  laid  in  cement. 

The  root  cellar  is  16  feet  in  diameter.  Its  location 
and  form  will  be  readily  apparent  from  the  plan.  The  wall 
is  of  bricks  laid  in  mortar.  In  no  part  does  the  wall  come 
nearer  on  the  inside  than  3  feet  8  inches  from  the  outer 
walls  of  the  building,  that  the  frost  may  be  the  more 
easily  excluded.  The  window  spaces,  which  are  also  used 
as  chutes  for  admitting  the  roots,  have  triple  thickness 
of  glass  in  the  form  of  a  double  window  without  and  a 
single  one  within.  The  floor  overhead  is  ceiled,  first,  with 
shiplap ;  second,  with  two  thicknesses  of  tarred  paper ; 
third,  with  furring  to  make  an  air  space ;  and  fourth,  with 
shiplap.  The  door  which  opens  into  the  feed  room  at  the 
head  of  the  stair  has  also  two  thicknesses  of  boards,  with 
tarred  paper  and  airspace.  Fig.  19  gives  an  outside  view 
of  the  structure. 

The  yards  extend  out  18  feet  from  the  building  on 
either  side,  and  they  are  separated  from  one  another  by 
movable  divisions.  A  less  width  than  18  feet,  as,  for  in- 
stance, 12  or  14  feet,  would  make  the  moving  of  the 
partitions  much  easier.  They  extend  from  the  shed  to 
the  fence  that  hems  in  the  yard. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
DISPOSAL  AND  MARKETING  OF  SHEEP 

Chapter  XVII  considers:  (i)  The  culling  of  the 
flock;  (2)  The  disposal  of  the  culls;  (3)  The  disposal  of 
pure  bred  sheep  and  lambs ;  (4)  Fitting  sheep  for  sale ; 
(5)  The  disposal  of  grade  sheep  and  lambs;  (6)  Deter- 
mining the  age  of  sheep ;  (7)  Preparing  sheep  for  ship- 
ping; (8)  Shipping  stockers  from  the  ranges;  (9) 
Shipping  finished  sheep  in  car  lots;  and  (10)  Shipping 
finished  sheep  in  train  loads. 

The  culling  of  the  flock — Every  breeding  flock  should 
be  culled  not  less  often  than  once  a  year,  and  it  is  seldom 
necessary  to  cull  more  frequently.  The  time  usually  re- 
garded as  the  most  suitable  is  the  season  when  the  lambs 
are  to  be  weaned.  The  real  value  of  the  ewes  may  be 
better  understood  at  that  time  than  at  any  other  season. 
They  have  been  weaning  their  lambs,  and  the  most  im- 
portant indication  of  their  value  as  breeders  is  the  form 
and  furnishings  of  the  lamb  or  lambs  which  they  may 
have  reared.  That  time  is  further  opportune  because  it 
separates  material  for  disposal  at  a  season  when  it  may 
most  readily  be  disposed  of,  or  most  readily  and  cheaply 
prepared  for  disposal. 

The  culling  of  the  farmer's  pure-bred  flock  should 
consider:  (i)  The  ewes  to  be  retained  or  sold;  (2)  the 
ewe  lambs  to  be  retained  or  sold ;  (3)  the  ram  lambs  held 
for  immediate  sale  and  those  to  be  carried  over;  and  (4) 
the  animals  to  be  sent  to  the  block,  old  or  young.  The 
ewes  retained  for  breeding  should,  of  course,  include  the 
best,  and  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  them,  so  far  as  may 
be  practicable,  of  the  same  type.  Those  set  aside  may  be 
too  valuable  to  justify  making  them  into  mutton,  hence 
it  is  legitimate  to  sell  them  as  breeders.  The  same  rules 


DISPOSAL   AND    MARKETING   OF   SHEEP  351 

should  guide  in  the  selection  of  the  ewe  lambs,  and  when 
once  set  aside  for  the  home  flock  the  temptation  to  sell 
them  to  customers  should  be  strenuously  resisted.  The 
strongest  and  best  only  of  the  ram  lambs  should  be 
offered  for  immediate  sale,  and  these  should  be  kept  apart 
from  the  others.  To  graze  them  together  will  injure  the 
sale  of  the  best  lambs.  The  other  ram  lambs  will  take 
the  market  better  as  yearlings.  The  cull  lot  for  feeding 
will  include  old  ewes,  any  whose  udders  may  have  failed, 
and  lambs  off  in  form  and  markings  and  in  the  character 
of  the  fleece. 

When  culling  grade  flocks  there  is,  of  course,  no 
legitimate  place  for  the  retention  or  sale  of  rams  for 
breeding  uses.  Much  care  should  be  exercised,  however, 
in  the  selection  of  the  ewes  to  be  retained  and  of  the 
ewe  lambs.  Unless  the  ewes  that  have  suckled  lambs  are 
considered  in  connection  with  the  lambs,  mistakes  in  the 
selection  of  the  ewes  are  very  liable  to  occur.  A  ewe 
should  not  be  rejected  on  the  sole  ground  that  she  is  low 
in  flesh.  If  a  large  lamb  at  weaning  time  stands  by  her 
side,  the  lamb  is  the  explanation  of  and  apology  for  her 
leanness.  She  has  been  generous  in  the  proportion  of 
food  turned  over  to  the  lamb,  but  if  she  is  dried  and  put 
on  a  good  pasture,  she  will  soon  pick  up  again.  The  ewe 
that  fed  her  lamb  poorly  all  summer  will  look  much  better 
at  weaning  time  than  the  other.  The  owner  of  a  good 
grade  flock  can  afford  to  cull  severely. 

It  would  seem  approximately  correct  to  say  that 
grade  flocks  should  be  so  renewed  from  year  to  year  that 
every  three  years  the  animals  in  it  would  be  entirely 
changed.  This  applies  to  farm  conditions.  The  plan 
which  takes  three  crops  of  lambs  from  ewes  and  then  dis- 
poses of  them  meets  with  much  favor.  This  is  said  in  full 
knowledge  of  the  fact  that  some  ewes  may  breed  success- 
fully for  a  much  longer  period.  The  lambs  are  thus  pro- 
duced by  ewes  in  the  zenith  of  their  usefulness.  The 
ewes  themselves  are  also  disposed  of  at  an  age  when  they 


352  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING    OF    SHEEP 

are  still  capable  of  fattening  readily  on  suitable  rations. 
Range  ewes  of  the  Merino  types  will  produce  profitably 
for  a  longer  period,  but  such  ewes  should  not  be  retained 
on  the  ranch  after  their  teeth  have  begun  to  fail.  The 
culling  of  pure-bred  flocks  not  so  strong  numerically  as 
they  are  to  be,  is  apt  to  be  less  severe  than  the  circum- 
stances would  justify.  Because  of  this  those  flocks  fre- 
quently fall  below  a  high  standard. 

Disposal  of  the  culls — When  sheep  and  lambs  are 
culled  on  the  range,  they  must  be  sold  for  what  they  will 
bring,  as  they  cannot  be  fattened  on  the  range.  More 
commonly  they  are  shipped  to  some  stock  yard  center  and 
are  then  sold  to  be  finished  when  the  facilities  for  such 
finishing  may  be  found  on  the  farm  or  at  the  yards.  Dur- 
ing recent  years  the  extension  of  the  beet-sugar  industry 
to  the  mountain  valleys  of  the  West  and  the  growth  of 
alfalfa  in  the  same  areas  has  opened  up  a  new  field  for 
the  fattening  of  culls,  especially  culls  rejected  because  of 
age.  The  soft  pulp  can  be  readily  eaten  by  these,  though 
they  should  be  almost  toothless  with  age. 

On  the  arable  farm  the  culls  may  be  fattened.  They 
may  be  fattened  in  the  autumn  on  suitable  grazing,  more 
especially  on  rape,  or  they  may  be  fattened  after  the  win- 
ter has  closed  in.  Usually  they  may  be  more  cheaply 
fattened  on  grazing,  and  this  makes  it  possible  to  get 
them  out  of  the  way  before  the  coming  of  winter,  which 
usually  brings  with  it  a  call  for  all  the  available  space 
that  it  may  be  possible  to  secure. 

Culls  are  usually  slow  feeders,  and  in  many  instances 
the  profit  from  feeding  is  less  than  that  secured  from  a 
better  class  of  animals.  In  the  nature  of  things  it  is  so, 
as  the  influences  that  led  to  their  rejection  as  breeders 
are  still  operative,  and  will  in  consequence  make  them  rela- 
tively slow  feeders.  The  want  of  uniformity,  which  in 
most  instances  they  possess,  tends  also  to  discount  the 
price  paid  for  them.  Nevertheless,  there  may  be  instances 


DISPOSAL   AND    MARKETING  OF  SHEEP  353 

when  it  may  be  legitimate  to  buy  culls  for  feeding  (see 
page  224). 

There  are  instances,  especially  in  small  flocks,  where 
the  culls  may  be  used  with  advantage  on  the  farm.  Be- 
cause they  have  been  culled  out  for  slaughter,  it  does 
not  follow  that  they  will  not  furnish  meat  of  good  quality. 
That  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  way  in  which  they  are 
fattened.  A  sheep  may  be  rejected  as  a  breeder  because 
it  is  undersize  or  off  in  form  in  some  particulars,  and  yet 
it  may  furnish  excellent  mutton.  Aged  sheep  fattened 
quickly  will  lose  much  of  that  toughness  that  would 
otherwise  characterize  the  meat.  The  home  supply  of 
meat  may  in  many  instances  be  largely  drawn  from  this 
source  for  the  entire  winter  by  those  who  have  a  liking 
for  mutton ;  when  thus  used  there  is  no  discount  put  upon 
the  animals  simply  because  they  are  culls.  Such  dis- 
counting is  very  common  when  these  are  sold  upon  the 
market. 

Dressing  sheep  for  home  use  is  not  difficult.  A  fast 
of  24  hours  before  slaughtering  is  helpful.  The  method 
frequently  followed  is  in  outline  as  follows :  The  animal 
is  caught,  laid  on  its  side  and  held  by  one  person  with  his 
knee  upon  the  shoulder,  one  leg  at  least  being  firmly  held 
in  each  hand.  The  throat  is  cut  by  a  second  person  as 
he  holds  the  lower  jaw  point  firmly  in  his  hand.  The 
skin  is  then  removed  before  or  after  hanging  up  the  sheep 
and  the  inwards  are  taken  out.  The  carcass  remains  sus- 
pended until  the  animal  heat  has  left  it.  The  longer  that 
it  can  be  kept  without  taint  the  better  will  be  the  mutton. 

Disposal  of  pure  breds — Pure-bred  sheep  and  lambs 
set  aside  for  disposal  are  more  commonly  sold  by  private 
sale.  They  are  usually  regarded  as  being  too  valuable  to 
sell  for  meat  as  long  as  they  are  capable  of  breeding  suc- 
cessfully. In  some  instances  ewes  whose  teeth  have  be- 
gun to  fail  are  purchased  as  material  on  which  to  found 
flocks,  as  such  material  can  usually  be  purchased  cheaply. 
The  practice  is  not  to  be  condemned,  nor  is  it  to  be  in- 


354  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

discriminately  commended.  If  ewes  thus  purchased  are 
suitably  fed,  they  may  be  able  to  produce  and  rear  lambs 
for  one  or  two  years  longer  than  if  not  thus  provided  with 
food  suited  to  their  advanced  age;  that  is,  food  that  is 
easy  to  masticate  and  rich  in  nutrients.  But  the  fact 
remains  that  ewes  past  the  meridian  of  vigor  will  not  rear 
lambs  of  equal  excellence  with  those  reared  by  the  same 
ewes  when  in  their  prime. 

The  sale  and  purchase  of  inferior  rams  for  breeding 
uses,  simply  because  they  are  purely  bred  is  a  serious 
mistake.  It  may  bring  immediate  gain  to  the  seller,  but 
in  the  end  it  is  sure  to  react  against  the  reputation  of  the 
breeder  and  of  the  breed.  Such  animals  ought  to  be  sold 
for  slaughter,  every  temptation  to  dispose  of  them  for 
any  other  use  should  be  resisted  and  the  same  is  true  of 
pure-bred  ewes  of  decided  inferiority. 

Orders  for  pure-bred  sheep,  and  especially  for  pure- 
bred rams,  are  very  frequently  filled  by  mail.  They  cannot 
be  filled  otherwise  when  the  buyer  and  seller  live  far 
apart,  because  of  the  expense  that  would  be  thus  incurred 
in  traveling.  Such  orders  are  based  on  the  reputation 
of  the  seller,  who  cannot  be  too  careful  to  keep  his  repu- 
tation unsullied  in  the  way  in  which  the  orders  are  filled. 
Those  who  give  them  should  be  careful  to  describe  the 
character  of  the  animal  or  animals  that  they  want,  and 
those  who  fill  them  should  be  equally  careful  to  fill  them 
in  the  line  of  the  requirements.  If  they  cannot  do  this 
they  should  not  try  to  fill  them.  Some  breeders  have  been 
able  to  build  up  a  very  large  business  on  these  lines. 
Other  breeders  have  never  been  able  to  do  so,  the  differ- 
ence in  the  results  being  based  chiefly  on  a  difference 
in  the  methods  of  filling  orders. 

The  leading  live  stock  fairs  that  are  held  usually 
furnish  auspicious  times  for  the  purchase  of  stock,  rams 
especially;  for  the  purchase  of  what  are  commonly  re- 
ferred to  as  field  rams — that  is,  rams  that  have  been  fitted 
for  the  show  ring.  Many  breeders  take  to  the  fairs  a 


DISPOSAL   AND    MARKETING  OF  SHEEP  355 

number  of  such  rams  for  sale,  hence  the  person  who  may 
desire  to  invest  is  given  the  opportunity  to  choose  from 
various  flocks. 

In  Great  Britain  a  large  proportion  of  the  rams 
reared  are  sold  at  sales  held  in  certain  centers  every  year. 
Those  sales  furnish  opportunities  that  cannot  be  improved 
upon  for  securing  stock  rams.  They  bring  the  buyer  and 
seller  close  together  at  a  minimum  of  cost,  so  the  pro- 
spective buyer  has  the  opportunity  of  inspecting  animals 
from  many  flocks  before  the  sale  is  held.  The  sale  also 
tends  to  inspire  those  who  furnish  the  animals  sold  to 
bring  them  possessed  of  high  excellence,  that  the  prices 
paid  may  add  to  their  reputation  as  successful  breeders. 
It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  bring  inferior  animals  to 
such  sales.  The  sales  should  be  well  advertised  and  the 
sheep  carefully  catalogued. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  the  attempts  to  sell  sheep  for 
breeding  at  such  sales  in  America  have  been  altogether 
successful,  a  result  that  may  have  arisen  in  part  from 
the  apparent  hesitancy  on  the  part  of  those  who  furnish 
the  animals  to  hazard  the  selling  of  high-class  sheep  by 
auction.  That  such  sales  will  yet  become  common  in  this 
country  would  seem  to  be  a  foregone  conclusion,  because 
of  the  fine  opportunity  which  they  furnish  to  intending 
purchasers  for  inspecting  animals  from  many  herds.  The 
tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to  hold  such  sales  at  cen- 
ters where  important  live  stock  fairs  are  held,  and 
simultaneously  with  the  fairs.  The  time  and  place  for 
holding  these  sales,  however,  is  at  present  in  the  tentative 
stage. 

Fitting  sheep  for  sale — When  sheep  or  lambs  are 
held  for  sale,  either  public  or  private,  they  will  not  sell 
readily,  nor  will  they  bring  good  prices  unless  possessed 
of  reasonably  good  flesh  and  a  fair  amount  of  bloom. 
Both  conditions  appeal  to  the  eye.  Where  the  animals 
offered  are  thin,  the  suspicion  is  aroused  that  they  are 
lacking  in  bloom;  they  do  not  possess  the  attractions 


356  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

which  bloom  brings  with  it.  Bloom  may  be  defined  as 
that  condition  in  which  form,  wool  and  action  are  pleas- 
ing and  attractive.  It  indicates  present  and  prospective, 
continued  thrift.  Animals  long  maintained  under  high 
pressure  feeding  at  length  lose  their  bloom,  and  when 
they  do  they  cannot  again  regain  it  to  the  same  extent,  as 
the  energies  of  the  system  have  been  weakened  by  over- 
work. To  sell  sheep  at  auction  that  are  low  in  flesh  or 
lacking  in  bloom  is  a  great  mistake.  Sheep  held  for  sale 
at  home  or  elsewhere,  should  be  at  least  measurably 
trimmed  with  the  shears.  The  nature  of  the  trimming 
will  depend  on  the  kind  of  the  sheep  and  the  conditions 
under  which  they  have  been  kept.  Trimming  improves 
the  appearance  of  the  sheep.  The  claim  that  it  tends  to 
deceive  is  not  valid,  as  the  intending  purchaser  is  not 
debarred  from  handling  the  sheep.  If  he  neglects  to 
handle  them,  he  may  be  deceived  by  the  fleece  of  the 
sheep  untrimmed  as  well  as  by  the  fleece  of  that  trimmed. 
When  sold  in  lots  at  home  or  in  the  sale  ring,  the  respec- 
tive lots  should  be  carefully  graded.  This  means  that  the 
individuals  in  the  respective  lots  should  be  chosen  with 
reference  to  similarity  in  age,  size  and  type.  Such  uni- 
formity is  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  it  brings  added  value 
to  the  lots  thus  sold.  Those  sold  at  auction  should  be 
numbered  on  the  side  or  back  with  ink  applied  with 
stamp  or  stencil,  that  they  may  be  readily  identified. 
Portable  pens  will  be  greatly  helpful  in  bringing  lots  to 
the  sale  ring. 

Disposal  of  grades — More  commonly  grade  sheep 
grown  upon  the  farm  are  disposed  of  as  lambs ;  that  is, 
under  the  age  of  12  months.  The  exact  age  for  such  dis- 
posal will  depend  on  the  aims  of  the  grower  and  on  his 
facilities  for  furnishing  lambs  at  different  ages.  It  would 
seem  correct  to  say  that,  as  a  rule,  the  profit  made  from 
lambs  decreases  relatively  with  increase  in  age,  providing 
that  in  all  instances  they  are  put  upon  the  market  in  fin- 
ished form.  A  well-fed  lamb  two  or  three  months  old 


DISPOSAL  AND   MARKETING  OF  SHEEP  357 

will  frequently  sell  for  as  much  as  the  same  lamb  would 
bring  if  retained  until  9  to  12  months  old.  When  not 
sold  as  milk  lambs,  the  aim  should  be  to  finish  them  on 
the  farm,  so  that  the  profit  made  from  the  finishing  may 
accrue  to  the  owner  rather  than  to  someone  who  may 
purchase  them  for  feeding.  On  the  range  sheep  are  sold 
as  lambs  or  wethers.  Whether  they  should  be  sold  as  lambs 
or  older,  depends  in  no  small  degree  on  the  relative  price 
of  wool  and  mutton.  The  higher  relatively  the  price  paid 
for  wool,  the  more  advantageous,  relatively,  to  sell  as 
wethers  rather  than  lambs,  and  vice  versa.  In  former 
decades  the  range  stocks  were  disposed  of  as  wethers, 
but  at  present  the  disposal  of  males  as  lambs  is  on  the 
increase.  The  tendency  is  to  increase  the  ewes,  since  a 
ewe  will  furnish  a  fleece  and  a  lamb,  while  the  wether 
furnishes  a  fleece  only.  It  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  a 
wether  will  sell  for  more  than  a  lamb,  and  he  will  con- 
sume less  grazing  than  .a  ew.e  and  a  lamb. 

On  the  range  the  surplus  stock  is  usually  sold  to  go 
to  the  block  directly  or  after  having  been  fattened  at 
some  place  of  finishing  not  in  the  range  country.  The 
aged  ewes  culled  out  are  disposed  of  similarly.  But  on 
the  farm  it  may  be  different.  Where  the  flock  is  small 
the  animals  singled  out  for  disposition  may  frequently  be 
all  used  in  supplying  meat  for  the  farmer  and  his  family. 
It  may  seem  incongruous  to  recommend  the  disposal  of 
culls  in  that  way,  but  when  sheep  are  kept  in  but  lim- 
ited numbers  the  grade  of  culls  even  may  rank  relatively 
high. 

Determining  the  age  of  sheep — When  culling  the 
flock,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  determine  the  age  of 
those  which  ought  to  be  discarded  on  the  ground  of  age, 
nor  can  a  judge  be  quite  sure  of  the  exact  age  when  pass- 
ing upon  sheep  in  the  show  ring.  In  the  latter  instances, 
however,  he  can  make  a  close  approximation  from  indica- 
tions furnished  by  the  teeth.  The  absence  of  teeth  and 


MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

other  indications  will  throw  some  light  upon  this  question 
of  old  age. 

At  birth,  or  before  the  first  month  is  past,  the  lamb 
is  possessed  of  eight  incisors  or  milk  teeth,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called.  These  are  all  in  the  under  jaw  and  in 
the  front  part  of  the  mouth.  Directly  above  is  a  bony 
substance  known  as  the  dental  pad,  which  serves  in  the 
place  of  teeth.  At  the  age  of,  say,  12  to  16  months,  the 
two  central  incisors  make  way  for  the  two  first  perma- 
nent ones.  At  the  age  of,  say,  21  or  22  months,  the  sec- 
ond pair  of  permanent  incisors  appear,  and  of  course,  on 
either  side  of  the  first  pair.  At  the  age  of  30  months, 
and  in  some  instances  earlier,  the  third  pair  are  in  place, 
and  at  the  age  of,  say,  36  months,  but  sometimes  two  or 
three  months  later,  the  fourth  and  last  pair  are  in  place, 
when  the  sheep  are  said  to  have  a  full  mouth. 

The  mature  sheep  has  24  grinding  teeth,  usually 
spoken  of  as  molars.  Of  these  12  are  in  the  under  and  12 
in  the  upper  jaw,  six  on  each  side.  Of  these  the  first, 
second  and  third,  counting  from  the  front  backwards,  are 
present  at  birth,  but  are  replaced  later.  In  about  three 
months  from  birth  the  first  permanent  molars  appear, 
occupying  the  fourth  place.  At  about  nine  months  the 
second  permanent  molars  appear,  occupying  the  fifth 
place,  and  at  about  18  months  the  third  complement  of 
permanent  molars  occupy  the  sixth  place.  At,  say,  22 
months,  the  first  and  second  temporary  molars  in  each 
side  and  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  are  replaced, 
and  at,  say,  24  months,  the  third  temporary  molars  are  re- 
placed. The  full  mouth  has  32  teeth  in  all.  The  perma- 
nent teeth  are  both  larger  and  darker  in  color  than  the 
temporary  teeth. 

The  other  indications  of  age — that  is,  of  old  age — 
include  the  partial  or  total  loss  of  the  teeth,  depression 
of  the  loin,  hollowness  at  the  barrel  depression,  sagging 
of  the  paunch  and  distension  of  the  nostril.  There  is 
some  relation  between  longevity  in  the  breed  and  the  time 


DISPOSAL   AND    MARKETING   OF  SHEEP  359 

when  the  teeth  fail.  In  some  breeds  the  teeth  are  lost 
at  about  half  the  age  at  which  they  are  lost  in  other 
breeds.  The  more  that  quick  maturity  has  been  sought 
in  a  breed,  the  younger  the  age  at  which  the  teeth  are 
shed,  and  vice  versa.  The  other  indications  referred  to  are 
also  affected  by  the  same  influence.  Longevity  in  the 
Merino  is  much  greater  than  in  the  other  breeds  now  in 
America.  In  former  decades  American  Merinos  have  in 
some  instances  produced  lambs  at  the  age  of  20  years. 
The  instances  are  not  numerous  with  nearly  all  the  other 
breeds  in  which  they  have  produced  lambs  beyond  half 
the  age  mentioned. 

It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  the  indications  of  age 
mentioned  are  only  approximations  more  or  less  close  to 
the  truth.  The  time  at  which  the  teeth  are  shed,  for 
instance,  is  much  influenced  by  the  forced  character  of 
the  feeding,  or  the  opposite.  Liberal  feeding  tends  to 
produce  early  shedding  of  the  teeth.  When  sheep  are 
liberally  fed  they  get  their  first  pair  of  permanent  incisors 
at  about  11  months,  the  second  at  18  months,  the  third  at 
27  months  and  the  fourth  at  36  months.  At  the  S*nithfield 
fat  stock  show  in  England,  sheep  having  their  central 
permanent  incisors  cut  are  considered  as  beyond  the  age 
of  10  months ;  those  having  them  fully  grown  as  beyond 
12  months ;  those  having  the  third  pair  cut  as  exceeding 
19  months;  and  those  having  the  third  pair  fully  up  and 
all  the  temporary  molars  replaced  as  exceeding  24  months. 

Preparing  sheep  for  shipping — When  sheep  are 
shipped  from  the  ranges  a  change  of  food  is  not  necessary 
preceding  their  shipment.  They  may  be  taken  directly 
from  the  pastures  to  the  cars  on  which  they  are  loaded. 
It  is  important  that  the  car  is  well  furnished  with  bedding, 
as  it  will  add  greatly  to  their  comfort  and  will  help  to 
keep  the  wool  from  getting  soiled.  For  an  ordinary  single 
deck  car  not  less  than  200  to  300  pounds  of  bedding  should 
be  furnished  in  the  form  of  straw  where  obtainable,  or 
old  hay  where  straw  is  not  to  be  had. 


860 


DISPOSAL   AND    MARKETING   OF  SHEEP  361 

When  shipping  sheep  from  farm  pastures  to  the  mar- 
ket it  may  be  necessary,  in  some  instances,  to  put  them 
on  dry  feed  for  a  day  or  two  prior  to  shipping.  The  object 
sought  is  to  lessen  the  tendency  to  scouring  that  might 
otherwise  result.  Such  a  course  is  important  when  sheep 
are  being  finished  on  succulent  pastures,  such  as  rape. 
When  shipped  from  feed  lots,  the  grain  ration  should  be 
materially  reduced  for  a  day  or  two  before  shipping.  Oats 
furnishes  the  safest  grain  food  to  feed  at  such  a  time. 

Instances  may  occur  in  which  the  individual  may 
have  only  a  part  of  a  carload  to  ship.  His  aim  should  be 
to  get  some  neighbor  similarly  situated  to  join  with  him 
in  completing  the  loading  of  the  car.  Such  co-operation 
in  localities  far  from  market  is"  highly  important,  and 
should  be  made  a  matter  of  pre-arrangement  before  the 
feeding  begins.  Swine  also  may  be  used,  of  course,  to 
complete  the  loading  of  the  car,  but  when  so  used  the 
partition  that  separates  the  sheep  and  swine  should  be 
strongly  made. 

When  shipping  sheep  out  of  the  stock  yards  to  be 
finished  on  the  farm  or  elsewhere,  it  is  a  wise  precaution 
to  dip  them  before  removing  them  from  the  stock  yards. 
Such  dipping  is  a  safeguard  against  scab  and  ticks,  but  if 
scab  is  suspected  the  sheep  ought  to  be  dipped  twice  with 
an  interval  between  (see  page  439).  The  stock  yards 
furnish  the  dipping  plant  and  materials  for  dipping,  and 
they  take  charge  of  the  same  at  so  much  per  head.  The 
charge  is  usually  a  moderate  one.  The  aim  should  be  to 
carry  the  sheep  in  disinfected  cars  after  they  have  been 
thus  dipped.  As  the  run  from  the  stock  yards  to  the  farm 
or  other  place  where  the  sheep  are  to  be  finished  is  not 
usually  a  long  one,  the  car  is  furnished  with  bedding  only. 
When  the  sheep  will  be  long  in  transit  some  hay  is  put 
around  the  sides  of  the  car,  which  they  will  consume,  in 
part  at  least,  on  the  way. 

Shipping  stockers  from  the  ranges — When  sheep  are 
shipped  as  stockers  from  the  ranges,  the  numbers  are  such 


362  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

usually  as  to  admit  of  grading  the  animals  before  they 
are  shipped.  The  aim  in  grading  should  be:  (i)  To  keep 
the  old  and  young  ewes  separate  from  each  other  and 
from  the  lambs  and  wethers;  (2)  to  keep  the  lambs  and 
wethers  apart,  and,  when  the  numbers  will  justify  it,  to 
grade  the  lambs  and  wethers  according  to  age  and  size. 
When  the  yards  are  reached  where  these  are  exposed  for 
sale,  the  different  classes  should  occupy  different  pens. 
The  benefit  resulting  is  that  higher  relative  price  which 
uniformity  brings  with  it.  The  purchaser  of  stockers  de- 
sires uniformity,  for  the  reason  that  an  even  lot  will  fat- 
ten more  readily  than  a  mixed  lot  or  a  lot  similar  in  kind 
but  differing  much  in  the  flesh  which  they  carry,  and  the 
uniformity  in  the  feeders  purchased  will  tend  much  to 
produce  uniformity  in  the  feeders  finished.  Uniformity 
in  the  latter  is  even  more  desirable  than  in  the  former. 

Sheep  are  sometimes  shipped  in  a  single  deck  car, 
and  sometimes  in  one  with  two  decks.  The  number  that 
a  car  will  carry  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  size  of  the 
sheep  or  lambs,  the  amount  of  flesh  that  they  carry  and 
the  length  of  the  car.  On  a  car  36  feet  long  from  120  to 
130  wethers  may  be  shipped  as  stockers  on  a  single  deck. 
When  shipping  old  ewes  they  should  not  be  crowded  so 
closely  as  in  the  case  of  wethers,  as  they  are  less  able 
to  bear  up  under  untoward  conditions  than  wethers. 
Stock  lambs  vary  more  in  size  than  wethers ;  hence  this 
variation  is  greater  in  the  number  that  the  car  will  carry. 
When  the  lambs  are  developed  so  as  to  weigh  60  to  70 
pounds,  a  single  deck  of  a  36-foot  car  should  carry  from 
140  to  150  head.  When  the  lambs  are  under  60  pounds  in 
weight,  the  single  deck  should  carry  170  to  180  head.  A 
maximum  weight  in  the  load  carried  is  fixed  upon  as  the 
basis  of  charge  for  the  car.  If  the  car  is  not  loaded  up  to 
this  maximum,  the  shipper  is  so  far  the  loser;  but  if 
loaded  to  exceed  the  maximum,  the  shipper  pays  propor- 
tionately for  the  excess. 


DISPOSAL   AND    MARKETING   OF  SHEEP  363 

The  aim  should  be  not  to  unload  the  stockers  in 
transit  more  frequently  than  the  law  compels  such 
unloading.  Sheep,  like  cattle,  will  not  eat  or  drink 
much  while  in  transit;  hence  the  all-important  consid- 
eration is  to  try  and  get  them  to  their  destination  as 
quickly  as  possible.  When  they  reach  the  stockyards, 
if  so  considered,  they  are  subject  to  inspection,  and  as  a 
safeguard  cannot  go  out  for  being  finished  without  being 
dipped  once,  and  twice  in  case  that  scabies  are  discovered. 
The  cost  of  sheep  held  in  the  yards  is,  of  course,  borne  by 
the  owners. 

Shipping  finished  sheep  in  car  lots — When  sheep  are 
to  be  shipped  in  car  lots,  the  wise  feeder  will  look  well 
ahead  with  reference  to  securing  cars  at  the  time  fixed 
upon  for  shipping.  The  importance  of  giving  most  care- 
ful attention  to  this  matter  increases  with  the  distance 
from  the  market  and  the  lack  of  competition  in  the  rail- 
roads. The  officials  of  the  road  should  be  given  such 
timely  notice  of  the  need  of  cars  as  to  leave  them  without 
excuse  if  the  cars  are  not  forthcoming.  Instances  may  be 
cited  in  which  failure  to  secure  cars  at  the  proper  time 
has  turned  what  would  have  been  a  handsome  profit  into 
no  profit  at  all.  This  result  followed  the  constrained  feed- 
ing of  the  sheep  after  they  were  ready  for  shipment  and 
downward  tendencies  in  the  markets. 

Where  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  fed,  the  grading 
of  the  shipments  will  be  easily  practicable.  It  may  not  be 
practicable  on  the  farm  where  but  one  carload  lot  is  fin- 
ished. In  the  former  instance  the  finished  animals  may 
be  sent  forward  as  ready,  the  less  finished  going  later.  In 
the  latter  instance  they  may  be  graded  after  reaching  the 
yards,  if  this  is  thought  best. 

The  number  of  finished  animals  that  a  car  will  carry 
will,  of  course,  be  influenced  by  their  size  and  the  degree 
of  the  finish  possessed.  In  a  single-deck  36-foot  car,  about 
100  finished  wethers  such  as  come  from  the  range  can  be 
shipped  without  discomfort  through  overcrowding.  From 


364  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

120  to  130  finished  lambs  will  make  a  load.  But  the  num- 
bers given  may  be  exceeded  or  diminished  so  as  to  vary 
considerably  through  the  influences  named. 

Usually  it  will  be  found  to  the  advantage  of  the 
shipper  to  consign  the  shipment  to  some  reputable  com- 
mission firm.  The  advice  of  the  said  firm  with  reference 
to  a  propitious  time  for  shipping  will  usually  prove  help- 
ful. The  commission  house  should  be  apprised  by  wire 
of  the  time  when  the  loaded  consignment  will  leave,  so 
that  they  will  know  when  to  look  for  it  at  the  yards. 
After  inspection  the  stock  is  in  charge  of  the  commission 
firm  until  sold.  The  said  firm  makes  sure  that  the  ani- 
mals are  properly  unloaded,  that  they  are  properly  fed 
and  watered,  and  that  the  animals  are  promptly  sold  at 
the  best  rates  obtainable.  A  check  is  then  issued  to  the 
owner,  with  the  charges  deducted.  These  charges  include 
such  items  as  switching  charges,  the  cost  of  food,  charges 
for  weighing  and  the  commission  charges. 

Shipping  finished  sheep  in  train  loads — As  a  matter 
of  economy  in  shipping,  sheep  are  sometimes  sent  forward 
from  the  place  of  feeding  in  train  loads  from  points  that 
are  far  away.  To  put  these  on  the  market  at  one  time 
might  involve  hazard,  especially  when  several  days  are 
occupied  in  the  journey,  owing  to  the  change  in  market 
values.  To  avoid  such  hazard,  the  plan  is  adopted  of 
securing  an  unloading  point  not  distant  from  the  mar- 
ket. The  plant  at  this  point  may  also  be  used  as  a  feed- 
ing station. 

The  sheep  should  reach  this  plant  in  ample  time  to 
enable  them  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  long  jour- 
ney in  transit  before  they  are  put  upon  the  market.  The 
owner  secures  the  services  of  a  commission  house  located 
at  the  market.  From  the  said  firm  he  gets  information 
from  time  to  time  as  to  the  needs  of  the  market.  He  is 
then  enabled  to  forward  selected  animals  from  time  to 
time  in  carload  lots  in  the  line  of  the  needs  of  the  mar- 
ket. In  this  way  he  secures  the  best  returns  obtainable 


DISPOSAL    AND    MARKETING   OF  SHEEP  365 

for  the  shipments  forwarded.  If  some  of  the  sheep  or 
lambs  are  not  yet  ready  to  be  sent  to  the  market,  the 
opportunity  is  furnished  to  feed  them  longer. 

Some  of  the  growers  of  sheep  thus  virtually  maintain 
two  feeding  stations.  One  is  located  in  the  country  near 
to  the  pastures  where  the  sheep  are  grown  and  where  the 
necessary  fattening  foods  are  obtainable,  and  the  other  is 
not  distant  from  the  place  of  final  disposal.  Sheep  grown 
on  the  ranges  are  thus  fattened  in  some  of  the  mountain 
valleys  of  the  West,  where  alfalfa  and  the  coarse  grains 
can  be  produced  abundantly  through  the  aid  of  irrigating 
waters  from  the  mountain  streams.  Marketable  lambs 
four  days  in  transit  and  weighing  50  to  100  pounds  will 
shrink  about  seven  to  eight  pounds;  one-year  wethers 
weighing  about  120  pounds,  about  10  pounds;  and  aged 
wethers  and  ewes,  about  12  pounds.  The  shorter  the 
period  of  transit  the  greater  relatively  would  be  the 
shrinkage,  and  vice  versa. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

PROTECTING  SHEEP  FROM  DOGS  AND 
WOLVES 

The  discussions  in  Chapter  XVIII  are  as  follows:  (i) 
How  dogs  and  wolves  affect  sheep  husbandry ;  (2)  How 
dogs  worry  sheep;  (3)  Protection  to  sheep  owners  from 
legislatures;  (4)  Remedial  legislation;  (5)  Protective 
measures  on  the  farm ;  (6)  Why  sheep  do  better  when  not 
corralled ;  (7)  The  dog  industry  in  the  United  States ; 
(8)  The  place  for  the  dog  in  sheep  husbandry ;  (9)  The 
losses  incurred  by  wolves;  and  (10)  Protective  measures 
against  wolves. 

How  dogs  and  wolves  affect  sheep  husbandry — It  is 
not  possible  to  state  with  precision  the  annual  loss  to 
sheep  husbandry  from  the  ravages  of  wolves  and  dogs. 
Statistics  relating  to  these  losses  have  not  been  compiled 
in  a  systematic  way,  and  for  the  reason  probably  that  the 
task  of  compiling  them  would  not  be  an  easy  one.  That 
these  losses  in  the  aggregate  are  very  great  is  unques- 
tionably true.  In  the  special  report  of  the  sheep  indus- 
try of  the  United  ^States  published  by  the  United  States 
department  of  agriculture  in  1892,  it  is  stated  that  the 
loss  from  dogs  alone  in  Ohio  was  placed  at  $152,034  and 
in  Missouri  at  $200,000.  In  Bulletin  No.  20  of  the  biolog- 
ical survey  of  the  United  States  department  of  agricul- 
ture, it  is  stated  that  the  average  animal  loss  from  wolves 
reported  from  several  of  the  range  states  has  been  5  per 
cent,  and  that  in  some  areas  the  losses  incurred  by  wolves 
and  other  wild  animals,  chiefly  the  former,  has  been  as 
much  as  20  per  cent.  It  would  seem  correct  to  say  that 
the  loss  incurred  from  these  two  sources  is  greater  than 
the  loss  resulting  from  disease. 


PROTECTING  SHEEP   FROM   DOGS   AND   WOLVES  367 

The  direct  loss  from  the  ravages  of  dogs  and  wolves 
is  probably  far  less  than  the  indirect  loss  resulting  there- 
from, which  means  the  adverse  influence  which  these 
losses  exert  upon  the  extension  of  the  industry.  During 
recent  years  especially  the  demand  for  mutton  has  greatly 
increased,  while  the  increase  in  the  number  of  sheep 
grown  has  made  but  little  advance  for  many  years.  The 
number  of  sheep  in  the  United  States  in  1884  is  officially 
stated  as  50,626,626,  and  in  1907  as  53,240,282.  The  in- 
crease in  the  23  years  included  has  been  only  2,613,656. 
In  Great  Britain  the  number  of  sheep  kept  at  the  present 
time  is  about  half  as  many  as  are  maintained  in  all  the 
states  of  the  Union.  In  the  older  states  where  sheep  hus- 
bandry has  declined,  as,  for  instance,  in  New  England, 
the  losses  incurred  by  vagrant  dogs  is  the  reason  usually 
given  by  the  farmers  for  the  lessened  numbers  of  the 
sheep  kept.  In  some  of  the  range  states  during  recent 
years  the  number  of  the  sheep  kept  has  grown  less,  and 
one  reason  most  commonly  given  is  the  loss  resulting 
from  the  presence  of  wolves. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  not  possible  to  state  whether 
the  actual  loss  from  dogs  or  wolves  is  the  greater  loss. 
Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  hindrance  to  exten- 
sion in  sheep  husbandry,  however,  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion that  the  former  exert  the  greater  influence.  The 
greatest  relative  increase  in  the  numbers  of  sheep  kept  in 
the  future  should  come  from  the  arable  rather  than  from 
the  range  states ;  hence  the  great  importance  of  protective 
measures  in  these  against  the  ravages  of  dogs. 

While  the  losses  incurred  from  the  ravages  of  wolves 
have  been  very  serious,  and  are  even  now,  it  can  scarcely 
be  said  that  these  could  have  been  prevented  in  the  past. 
The  same  is  not  true,  however,  of  the  losses  resulting 
from  the  attacks  of  dogs.  In  great  measure  they  could 
have  been  prevented.  That  they  have  not  been  prevented 
is  little  less  than  a  blot  upon  our  civilization.  That  the 
farmers  have  not  risen  in  resistless  protest  against  the  in- 


368  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

difference  shown  by  legislators  to  these  losses  is  not  cred- 
itable to  their  manhood;  that  legislatures  have  so  fre- 
quently trifled  with  the  remedial  measures  proposed  is  not 
creditable  to  their  patriotism. 

How  dogs  worry  sheep — The  night  season  is  the  time 
usually  chosen  by  dogs  for  worrying  sheep,  but  in  some 
instances  they  will  not  refrain  from  attacking  them  in  the 
day.  The  problem  of  devising  means  that  will  enable  the 
farmers  who  keep  sheep  to  receive  compensation  for  the 
loss  sustained  is  much  complicated  by  -this  habit  in  the 
dogs  to  make  their  attacks  in  the  night  season.  It  makes 
it  practically  impossible  to  know  whose  dogs  did  the  mis- 
chief. But  even  though  this  could  be  known,  and  though 
the  law  made  provision  that  the  owners  of  the  sheep 
should  be  given  full  compensation  by  the  owners  of  the 
dogs,  in  very  many  instances  the  owners  of  the  latter 
would  be  unable  to  make  payment.  More  commonly  the 
slaughtering  of  the  sheep  is  done  by  vagrant  dogs  owned 
by  people  who  are  too  poor  and  frequently  too  negligent 
also  to  provide  proper  food  for  them.  The  exceptions, 
however,  are  not  few,  for  dogs  that  are  well  fed  will  some- 
times worry  sheep.  It  has  even  been  claimed  that  shep- 
herd dogs  have  been  known  to  worry  sheep,  but  such 
instances,  if  they  happened,  are  extremely  rare. 

In  some  instances  dogs  will  worry  sheep  though 
alone.  More  commonly,  however,  they  make  the  attack 
when  in  pairs  or  trios.  They  sometimes  go  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  in  search  of  a  flock.  They  will  not  only 
attack  sheep  in  the  open  field,  but  will  also  attack  them 
when  yarded,  if  the  yard  or  corral  is  accessible.  When 
attacked  in  the  yard  or  corral  the  slaughter  is  usually 
very  great.  But  the  same  is  true  in  some  instances  in 
the  open  field,  as  the  surrounding  fence  makes  it  impossi- 
ble for  them  to  get  away. 

The  power  of  dogs  to  worry  sheep  is  very  great.  In 
some  instances,  more  especially  when  the  attack  is  made 
by  a  single  dog,  it  is  confined  to  a  single  sheep  from  the 


PROTECTING  SHEEP   FROM   DOGS  AND   WOLVES  369 

carcass  of  which  the  murderer  of  the  innocent  makes  a 
meal.  More  commonly,  however,  but  little  flesh  is  eaten. 
No  sooner  has  one  sheep  been  killed  or  maimed  suffi- 
ciently to  satisfy  the  dog,  than  he  leaves  it  and  engages 
in  the  chase  after  another.  More  commonly  the  neck  is 
the  favorite  place  of  attack,  but  the  attacks  are  by  no 
means  confined  to  that  part  of  the  animal.  In  some  in- 
stances the  slaughter  is  only  stayed  when  the  dogs  have 
become  too  exhausted  to  carry  it  on  longer.  Two  dogs 
have  been  known  to  kill  and  maim  more  than  100  sheep 
in  one  of  those  nocturnal  carnivals  of  slaughter. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  prove  the  identity  of  the 
dogs,  even  though  they  should  be  caught  at  the  nefarious 
work  in  the  broad  light  of  day.  Assured  identity  of  a  dog 
seen  at  a  distance  is  not  easy,  and  owing  to  their  swift- 
ness when  pursued,  it  is  usually  impossible  to  follow  them 
to  the  home  of  the  owner.  In  a  few  instances  strong  cir- 
cumstantial evidence  may  be  obtained  against  a  dog  sus- 
pected of  guilt,  by  wool  hairs  adhering  to  the  teeth  or 
blood  marks  around  the  jaws,  but  the  danger  exists  that 
the  fact  of  making  such  an  examination  may  create  hard 
feelings  by  men  who  have  been  neighbors. 

The  loss  in  a  flock  of  sheep  that  have  been  worried 
by  dogs  is  by  no  means  all  represented,  as  a  rule,  by  the 
number  of  the  sheep  killed  or  wounded.  The  injury  to 
the  surviving  numbers  of  the  flock  is  such  that  the  profit 
that  would  otherwise  have  accrued  is  much  reduced.  This 
arises  from  the  ill-doing  for  a  considerable  period  at  least 
following  the  attack.  This  ill-doing  is  probably  the  out- 
come in  part  at  least  of  the  severe  shock  given  to  the 
nervous  system  arising  from  fright. 

Protection  by  legislative  enactment — From  what  has 
been  said  it  will  be  apparent  that  in  the  absence  of  legis- 
lation bearing  upon  compensation  to  the  owners  of  sheep 
attacked  by  dogs,  it  will  be  impossible  for  them  to  secure 
such  compensation.  Such  legislation  has  usually  been 
difficult  to  obtain,  for  reasons  given  below.  It  has  sel- 


3/O  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

dom  proved  entirely  satisfactory  when  attempted,  and  in 
some  instances  where  such  legislation  has  been  attempted 
it  has  been  subsequently  repealed.  The  fact  remains, 
nevertheless,  that  an  industry  so  important  to  the  mate- 
rial interests  of  the  state  should  be  protected.  The  diffi- 
culty usually  met  with  in  securing  legislation  on  the  sub- 
ject arises  in  part  from  the  far  greater  numerical  strength 
of  those  who  keep  dogs  and  no  sheep  than  of  those  who 
keep  sheep.  Some  legislators  at  least  recognize  this  fact, 
and,  doing  so,  they  are  slow  to  support  a  measure  that 
may  alienate  supporters.  It  also  arises  in  part  from  the  ex- 
treme difficulty  in  framing  legislation  that  will  give  jus- 
tice to  all  and  that  will  give  oppression  to  none. 

It  would  seem  to  be  true,  however,  that  the  strongest 
reason  for  opposing  such  legislation  is  found  in  the 
strength  of  the  sporting  instinct  in  many  legislators  and 
also  in  many  of  their  supporters,  more  especially  those 
located  in  towns  and  villages.  This  love  of  hunting  would 
seem  to  be  so  strong  in  many  instances  as  to  blunt  the 
sense  of  justice  with  reference  to  legislation  that  would 
seriously  interfere  with  conducting  the  sport  of  hunting 
on  old-time  lines.  The  dog  is,  in  a  sense,  an  indispensa- 
ble adjunct  to  successful  hunting.  Hence  legislators 
sometimes  hesitate  to  pass  laws  that  may  be  regarded  by 
those  who  keep  hunting  dogs  as  inimical  to  their  interests. 

Legislation  to  protect  from  dogs — No  legislation  that 
has  been  enacted  has  proved  entirely  satisfactory.  That 
system,  it  would  seem  correct  to  say,  has  proved  the  least 
objectionable  which  puts  a  tax  on  all  dogs  outside  of  cor- 
porate cities,  funds  the  same  in  the  county  in  which  it 
is  collected,  and  reimburses  the  owner  of  sheep  from  this 
fund  in  whole  or  in  part  for  loss  incurred  by  dogs.  In 
very  many  instances  the  owners  of  dogs  conceal  them 
when  the  assessment  is  being  taken,  and  in  some  in- 
stances deny  the  presence  of  their  existence,  and  in  this 
way  they  are  not  listed  for  taxing.  The  system  has  been 
objected  to,  first,  because  it  taxes  useful  and  useless  dogs 


PROTECTING  SHEEP   FROM   DOGS  AND   WOLVES  371 

alike;  second,  because  the  fund  collected  does  not  in  all 
instances  cover  the  loss;  and  third,  because  in  some  coun- 
ties practically  no  sheep  are  reared. 

Because  of  these  and  other  objections,  laws  that  have 
been  passed  to  protect  sheep  from  dogs  have  in  several 
instances  been  repealed.  The  cities  have  laws  or  by-laws 
relating  to  dogs,  hence  they  are  beyond  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  counties,  and  so  cannot  be  reached  by  enactments 
in  these,  and  yet  many  of  the  losses  incurred  result  from 
the  attacks  of  city  dogs. 

Whether  legislation  will  yet  be  enacted  that  will 
prove  more  effective  remains  to  be  seen.  As  long  as  the 
sentiment  that  exalts  the  sport  of  hunting  to  a  higher 
plane  than  sheep  husbandry  remains,  remedial  legislation 
to  protect  sheep  will  not  be  easily  obtained.  That  the 
industry  ought  to  be  thus  protected,  however,  cannot  for 
one  moment  be  questioned.  The  agitation  for  it,  there- 
fore, should  never  cease  until  it  is  obtained. 

Protective  measures  on  the  farm — In  the  absence  of 
adequate  protection  from  the  legislature,  the  sheep  own- 
er can  adopt  protective  measures  that  will  go  far  to  in- 
sure safety  for  his  sheep.  Even  when  legislation  has  been 
enacted  it  may  be  fitly  supplemented  by  the  adoption  of 
such  measures.  These  include  protection  furnished  by 
bells,  by  goats,  by  corrals,  by  fences,  by  firearms  and 
by  poison. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  putting  bells  in  large  num- 
bers on  sheep  will  afford  protection  against  dogs  and  also 
against  wolves.  That  protection  to  some  extent  has  thus 
been  afforded  is  probably  true,  but  whether  such  protec- 
tion would  in  all  instances  prove  adequate  is  at  least  an 
open  question.  The  effectiveness  would  doubtless  be  in- 
fluenced, first  by  the  size  of  the  flock,  and,  second,  by  the 
extent  to  which  it  is  equipped  with  bells.  It  has  been  the 
practice  of  some  flockmasters  to  furnish  from  25  to  50 
per  cent  of  the  flock  with  bells. 

In  some  instances  the  presence  of  "billy"  goats  in  the 


372  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

flock,  that  is  of  male  goats,  has  to  some  extent  furnished 
protection  to  sheep  from  dogs.  Such  protection,  how- 
ever, in  large  flocks  will  not  always  prove  adequate,  as 
the  flock  not  infrequently  divides  into  groups  in  large 
pastures,  and  in  some  of  these  the  goats  may  be  absent 
when  the  dogs  attack  the  sheep.  Nor  is  it  by  any  means 
certain  that  male  goats  will  always  prove  effective  in  the 
fight  with  dogs  when  they  are  present.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  Dorset  males,  though  in  some  instances  they  may 
drive  away  timid  dogs.  Even  ewes  with  young  lambs  will 
sometimes  fight  dogs  in  defence  of  their  young,  but  usu- 
ally they  prove  quite  unequal  to  conducting  such  a  con- 
test. 

The  corral  is  a  sure  means  of  protection  for  sheep  at 
night  when  the  inclosure  is  properly  made.  When  the 
fence  is  inadequate  to  keep  out  dogs,  the  corral  only 
tends  to  facilitate  the  slaughter  when  dogs  get  inside. 
To  the  sheep  in  such  an  event  it  becomes  a  veritable  death 
trap.  To  yarding  sheep  in  corrals  there  are  also  some 
objections  as  shown  below. 

One  of  the  surest  and  most  effective  ways  of  protect- 
ing sheep  against  dogs  is  by  fencing  the  pastures  so 
that  dogs  cannot  enter  them.  A  fence  constructed  as  fol- 
lows will  protect  against  dogs :  Set  posts  8  feet  long,  say 
one  rod  apart,  and  sunk  3  feet  into  the  ground.  Along 
these  stretch  barbed  wire  just  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  say,  3  inches ;  above  this  stretch  a  strip  of  woven 
wire  36  inches  broad  and  with  mesh  not  exceeding  5 
inches.  Six  inches  above  the  woven  wire  stretch  a  barb 
wire;  6  inches  higher  stretch  another  and  8^  inches 
higher  still  a  third.  The  fence  will  thus  be  5  feet  from  the 
ground  to  the  top  of  the  barb  wire.  A  strip  of  strong 
wood  2x1  inches,  placed  erect  and  midway  between  the 
posts,  and  to  which  the  wires  are  stapled,  will  prevent 
them  from  sagging.  A  wire  woven  up  and  down  at  the 
same  place  will  effect  the  same  end.  The  bottom  wire  is 
intended  to  prevent  the  dogs  from  crawling  under.  . 


PROTECTING  SHEEP   FROM   DOGS  AND   WOLVES  373 

Should  any  runways  pass  under  the  fence,  these  will  need 
special  attention.  The  gates  must  also  be  carefully  made 
and  put  in  place.  These  may  be  of  wire  similar  to  that 
used  in  building  the  fence,  but  which,  of  course,  should 
be  carefully  stayed  between  the  headpiece  and  the  end- 
piece  of  the  gate.  A  fence  thus  built  will  be  quite  suit- 
able for  inclosing  a  corral. 

Protection  by  means  of  firearms  may  not  in  all  in- 
stances be  in  strict  accord  with  the  letter  of  the  law,  and 
disobedience  to  law  very  seldom  finds  justification.  But 
when  a  dog  visits  the  property  of  another  unattended  by 
an  owner  he  is  a  trespasser.  The  law  relating  to  trespass 
usually  forbids  such  visitation  of  any  member  of  the 
human  family  without  the  concurrence  of  the  owner  of 
the  land.  Should  domestic  animals,  as,  for  instance,  the 
horse  and  the  cow,  invade  property,  the  law  usually  makes 
provision  for  impounding  them.  Why,  then,  should  a 
dog  be  given  license  to  go  where  other  domestic  animals 
and  even  man  himself  cannot  go  without  permission?  The 
dog  cannot  be  impounded.  The  only  protection  against 
his  undesirable  presence  is  that  which  sends  him  to  the 
shades  of  non-existence.  It  would  be  difficult,  indeed, 
to  find  a  court  that  would  punish  a  man  who  would  thus 
protect  himself  against  trespass. 

Protection  by  means  of  poison  is  justified  on  the 
same  ground  as  protection  by  means  of  firearms.  The 
reasons  which  sustain  the  one  method  of  dealing  with 
dogs  will  also  sustain  the  other.  Dogs  are  much  more 
easily  poisoned  than  wolves  (see  page  382),  as  they  are 
much  less  wary  and  suspicious.  A  piece  of  meat  charged 
with  strychnine  trailed  across  a  field  and  left  in  a  suit- 
able place  will  usually  lure  dogs  to  their  death  who  in- 
vade that  field.  In  the  absence  of  legislation  to  protect 
sheep  from  dogs  measures  thus  heroic  will  furnish  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  protection. 

The  corral  and  its  place — A  corral,  as  is  generally 
known,  is  a  roofless  inclosure  into  which  sheep  are 


374  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

brought  for  safe  keeping  for  the  night.  The  protection 
sought  is  against  dogs  and  beasts  of  prey.  On  the  arable 
farm  where  the  sheep  are  corraled  at  night  the  yard  and 
the  shed  which  opens  into  it  is  usually  made  to  serve  the 
purposes  of  a  corral.  On  the  range  this  is  frequently  im- 
practicable ;  in  fact,  it  is  so  usually  during  the  grazing  sea- 
son, owing  to  the  distance  of  the  grazing  grounds  from 
the  sheds. 

A  corral  is  always  a  necessity  on  the  open  range,  as 
under  such  conditions  the  danger  is  always  more  or  less 
present  that  the  flock  may  be  preyed  upon  by  beasts  of 
prey.  When  the  range  is  very  large,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  have  more  than  one  corral.  Of  course,  on  the  arable 
farm  such  increased  protection  is  never  necessary,  un- 
less the  sheep  should  be  kept  during  a  part  of  the  grazing 
season  on  pastures  too  distant  to  admit  of  driving  them  to 
the  home  corral. 

Although  the  corral  is  indispensable  under  many 
conditions  of  sheep  husbandry,  it  is  nevertheless  a 
hindrance  in  some  respects  to  the  production  attainable 
were  it  not  necessary  to  corral  the  sheep.  It  calls  for 
travel  that  would  not  otherwise  be  necessary;  it  fosters 
to  some  extent  the  spread  of  disease  should  it  be  present 
in  the  flock,  and  it  prevents  the  sheep  from  grazing  as 
they  otherwise  would  in  the  coolest  portion  of  the  day. 

When  sheep  are  sustained  by  grazing  alone,  they  get 
all  the  exercise  they  need  when  taking  their  food,  and 
should  the  pasture  be  sparse,  they  get  more  than  they 
need.  Every  additional  step  taken  beyond  the  require- 
ments of  health  is  taken  at  the  expense  of  flesh,  hence  the 
more  distant  that  the  corral  is  from  the  pastures,  the 
greater  is  the  loss  from  such  journeying.  The  aim  should 
be,  therefore,  to  so  locate  the  corral  that  unnecessary 
time  on  the  part  of  the  sheep  would  be  prevented.  This 
may  call  for  the  construction  of  more  than  one  corral 
on  large  grazing  grounds.  The  other  conditions  to  be 
considered  in  locating  a  corral  include:  (i)  Protection 


PROTECTING  SHEEP   FROM   DOGS   AND   WOLVES  375 

from  wind  such  as  is  provided  by  a  bluff  or  grove;  (2) 
ground  with  sufficient  slope  to  keep  the  corral  dry;  and 
(3)  proximity  to  water  for  the  sheep  and  also  the  shep- 
herd, who  usually  lodges  in  a  little  shack  near  to  the 
corral.  On  the  arable  farm  sheep  accustomed  to  the  .cor- 
ral will  come  to  the  same  at  nightfall  as  the  outcome  of 
habit.  The  way  is  left  open  for  them  to  do  so.  On  the 
range  they  are,  of  course,  accompanied  by  the  shepherd. 

Should  disease  be  present  in  the  flock,  the  spread  of 
the  same  is  facilitated  by  corraling  at  night.  Crowding 
the  sheep  into  close  quarters,  of  course,  brings  them  into 
closer  contact  with  certain  forms  of  disease  which  are 
communicable  in  the  germ  form  and  in  other  forms. 
Sheep  in  small  flocks  and  possessed  of  large  liberty 
always  thrive  better  than  those  kept  under  conditions 
the  opposite. 

The  most  objectionable  feature  to  the  corral  is  that 
it  deprives  sheep  of  the  opportunity  to  graze  during  those 
times  which  are  most  favorable  for  such  grazing,  espe- 
cially in  warm  weather.  When  sheep  can  lie  out  on  the 
pastures  they  will  invariably  graze  in  the  cool  of  the  even- 
ing, and  in  some  instances  on  into  the  night.  In  the  early 
morning  they  again  start  out  to  gather  feed  while  the 
grasses  are  wet  with  dew.  Such  grazing  in  the  cool  of 
the  day  allows  the  sheep  to  take  more  rest  in  the  heat 
of  the  day  than  would  otherwise  be  possible,  which  adds 
much  to  their  thrift. 

When  they  are  driven  nightly  to  the  corral  in  large 
bands,  they  feed  more  or  less  on  the  way  in  and  out, 
especially  when  going  out  in  the  morning.  Because  of 
this  the  grazing  becomes  bare  within  a  considerable  dis- 
tance of  the  corral.  When  this  happens  in  proximity  to 
the  quarters  in  which  the  sheep  are  wintered  it  is  so  far 
unfortunate  as  it  tends  so  far  to  deprive  the  sheep  of 
grazing  during  the  open  weather  of  winter.  To  avoid 
such  a  result  the  aim  should  be,  on  the  range,  to  have  the 
summer  corral  distant  from  winter  quarters. 


376  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

Notwithstanding  these  drawbacks  to  the  corral,  it  is 
an  absolute  necessity  in  the  range  country  because  of  the 
hazard  from  wild  animals.  Were  it  not  for  the  hazard 
from  dogs,  it  would  seldom  be  a  necessity  on  the  farm, 
hence  the  cost  and  labor  of  protecting  sheep  in  the  corral 
and  the  loss  resulting  therefrom  is  nearly  all  to  be 
charged  against  the  mischief  wrought  by  dogs. 

Dogs  in  the  United  States — In  the  absence  of  care- 
fully compiled  statistics,  it  would  not  be  possible  to  state 
with  definiteness  the  number  of  the  dogs  maintained  in 
the  United  States.  Unquestionably  it  runs  far  into  the 
millions.  The  assessors'  returns  show  that  in  many  coun- 
ties in  a  large  proportion  of  the  arable  states  the  number 
of  the  dogs  far  exceeds  that  of  the  number  of  the  sheep. 
Furthermore,  it  would  seem  safe  to  say  that  19  out  of  each 
20  of  the  dogs  kept  are  of  no  use  whatever  save  to  amuse 
children  generally  and  a  certain  class  of  women.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  know  the  cost  of  food  for  dogs 
in  the  United  States.  Owing  to  the  concentrated  food 
called  for  by  dogs,  the  cost  of  keeping  each  dog  is  several 
times  the  cost  of  keeping  each  sheep.  The  cost  of  food 
for  large  dogs  is  not  so  very  much  less  than  the  cost  of 
food  for  the  average  child.  A  very  large  proportion  of 
the  dogs  kept  are  owned  by  the  poor;  hence,  in  maintain- 
ing them,  if  they  are  to  be  properly  maintained,  they  are 
not  infrequently  given  food  that  should  be  given  instead 
to  the  children  of  the  household.  More  frequently  they 
are  not  properly  fed,  and  because  of  this  they  must  gather 
food  by  scouring  the  country  as  scavengers,  hence  the 
source  of  many  of  the  depredations  which  they  commit 
while  so  engaged.  It  would  seem  probable  that  the  cost 
of  maintaining  dogs  in  the  United  States  is  greater  than 
th'e  cost  of  maintaining  sheep  in  the  same.  In  other 
words,  the  United  States  pays  more  per  annum  for  main- 
taining the  greatest  hindrance  that  exists  to  the  sheep 
industry  than  it  does  to  sustain  that  industry.  This  does 
not  mean  that  the  children  of  the  home  are  not  to  enjoy 


PROTECTING   SHEEP    FROM    DOGS   AND    WOLVES  377 

the  comfort  which  the  household  dog  brings  to  them,  that 
the  home  is  not  to  enjoy  the  protection  of  a  watch  dog, 
or  that  the  lover  of  sport  is  not  to  have  his  hunting  dog; 
but  it  does  mean  that  those  who  keep  dogs  are  morally 
bound,  and  should  be  legally  bound,  so  far  as  laws  can 
bind  them,  to  keep  their  dogs  from  worrying  the  farmers' 
sheep. 

The  great  amount  of  the  waste  thus  incurred  in  main- 
taining useless  dogs  is  the  least  part  of  the  loss.  It  is 
small  in  comparison  with  the  loss  sustained  by  the  nation 
in  the  extent  to  which  the  attacks  of  dogs  hinder  the 
extension  of  what  should  be  one  of  the  greatest  industries 
which  the  nation  possesses. 

The  dog  in  sheep  husbandry — The  dog  has  his  place 
in  sheep  husbandry,  and  an  important  place  it  is.  The 
shepherd  dog  is  wanted  to  help  in  guiding  the  sheep,  and 
the  hunting  dog  is  frequently  wanted  to  aid  in  defending 
it.  It  would  not  be  possible  to  care  for  sheep  on  the 
ranges  in  the  absence  of  dogs,  because  of  the  size  of 
the  flocks.  The  sheep  on  western  ranges  cannot  be  led 
by  the  shepherd,  as  were  the  smaller  flocks  in  ancient 
times.  They  must  be  driven,  and  it  would  be  quite 
impracticable  to  drive  flocks  so  large  without  the  aid 
of  one  or  more  dogs.  The  necessity  for  the  aid  of  the 
hunting  dog  in  defending  the  flock  is  dependent  upon  the 
degree  of  the  hazard  to  exposure  incurred  by  proximity 
to  the  haunts  of  wild  animals  which  prey  upon  it. 

The  shepherd's  dog  is  also  a  necessity  in  arable  areas 
that  are  in  a  large  measure  unfenced,  and  even  in  areas 
where  the  pastures  are  large  though  fenced.  A  well- 
trained  dog  under  such  conditions,  and  also  on  the  range, 
is  far  more  helpful  to  the  shepherd  than  even  a  mounted 
assistant  would  be.  The  time  will  never  come  under 
range  conditions,  and  also  under  conditions  that  are  ara- 
ble in  whole  or  in  part,  when  the  shepherd  dog  can  be 
entirely  dispensed  with. 

The  true  shepherd's  dog  furnishes  a  wonderful  illus- 


MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

tration  of  the  marvelous  degree  of  the  perfection  of  the 
development  to  which  an  animal  of  the  canine  species 
may  be  brought  through  centuries  of  skillful  breeding 
accompanied  by  careful  and  wise  training.  In  these  re- 
spects the  collie  is  perhaps  without  a  rival.  The  prompt 
and  unfailing  obedience  of  the  collie  would  frequently 
put  to  the  blush  the  obedience  of  a  well-trained  child. 
The  sagacity  shown  in  doing  its  work  is  nothing  short 
of  wonderful.  Its  fidelity  to  the  interests  of  its  master 
knows  no  wavering.  In  these  and  also  in  other  respects 
it  would  almost  seem  as  though  it  were  guided  by  reason 
rather  than  by  instinct.  More,  probably,  than  any  other 
animal  does  it  illustrate  the  near  approach  which  instinct 
may  make  to  the  realm  of  reason  without  actually  invad- 
ing it.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  there  are  dogs  and  dogs. 

The  losses  incurred  by  wolves — In  all  countries 
where  the  opportunity  occurs  wolves  prey  upon  sheep, 
and  doubtless  they  have  done  so  in  every  age.  In  North 
America  wolves  are  divided  into  two  groups,  known  re- 
spectively as  timber  wolves  and  coyotes.  The  former 
inhabit  wooded  areas  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  coyotes, 
whose  presence  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  open 
country. 

Timber  wolves  are  larger  than  coyotes.  They  are  also 
usually  larger  in  northern  areas  than  in  those  far  South. 
The  color  varies  in  different  areas.  In  eastern  Canada,  it 
is  a  dark  gray ;  in  the  southeastern  states,  a  dark  gray  or 
black ;  in  southern  Texas,  red ;  in  Mexico,  brindled ;  in  the 
western  range  country,  a  light  gray;  along  the  central 
Pacific  area,  dusky  or  black ;  and  in  Alaska  and  Canada, 
far  northward,  it  is  almost  white. 

Coyotes,  so  named  by  the  Spaniards,  are  usually  of 
a  dirty  gray,  with  more  or  less  of  a  reddish  tint  about  the 
head,  neck  and  legs.  The  proportion  of  the  red  and  black 
varies  much  with  the  different  species.  In  size  they  are 
larger  than  a  fox  and  smaller  than  the  timber  wolf,  but 
the  size  varies  considerably  in  the  different  species,  of 


PROTECTING  SHEEP    FROM    DOGS   AND    WOLVES  379 

which  there  are  several.  They  are  furnished  with  a 
pointed  muzzle,  erect  ears  and  a  bushy  tail. 

Timber  wolves  were  originally  distributed  over  all 
parts  of  the  continent  that  produced  forest.  With  the 
settlement  of  the  country  they  continually  recede.  In  the 
eastern  and  central  states  they  are  now  entirely  extinct, 
but  in  various  areas  near  large  tracts  of  forest  they  are 
still  a  source  of  considerable  loss.  This  is  especially  true 
of  northern  Michigan,  northern  Wisconsin  and  northern 
Minnesota  and  of  much  of  the  range  country,  where  their 
former  prey,  the  buffalo,  is  not  found  any  more.  They 
frequently  make  their  dens  in  lonely  places  in  the  open 
country.  Coyotes  inhabit  all  the  range  country  from  the 
Mississippi  River  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  from  Athabasca 
on  the  north  to  Costa  Rica  on  the  south.  In  nearly  all 
the  range  country  they  are  as  numerous  as  when  the 
country  was  first  occupied,  and  in  some  areas  have  in- 
creased, notwithstanding  the  efforts  that  have  been  made 
to  destroy  them.  The  explanation  is  found  in  the  in- 
creased food  supplies  which  civilization  has  made  accessi- 
ble to  them. 

The  idea  that  forest  reserves  in  the  range  states  are 
largely  accountable  for  the  presence  of  wolves  is  not  true, 
as  in  the  mountain  areas  they  are  not  found,  save  in  the 
summer  season  where  live  stock  are  driven  up  to  higher 
altitudes  to  graze.  They  breed  in  the  foothills.  Fre- 
quently the  dens  are  located  near  washed-out  places  along 
the  sides  of  streams  or  under  rocks  in  side  hills.  Some- 
times the  dens  are  enlarged  from  holes  made  by  badgers 
or  other  wild  animals.  In  many  instances  the  view  from 
elevations  near  the  dens  extends  over  a  large  area,  hence 
the  approach  of  an  intruder  is  almost  impossible  without 
discovery.  The  breeding  season  varies  with  the  climate, 
but  in  the  central  west  it  occurs  in  April,  and  by  August 
the  young  wolves  are  able  to  shift  for  themselves. 
Wolves  breed  but  once  a  year.  The  period  of  gestation 


380  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

is  about  63  days.  The  litters  number,  say,  from  four  to 
eight  each. 

Wolves  usually  hunt  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  but  in 
some  instances  they  search  for  prey  in  the  daytime.  They 
live  almost  entirely  on  animal  food.  The  smaller  species 
live  largely  on  wild  game,  but  they  also  prey  upon 
domestic  fowl  of  all  kinds,  lambs  and  young  swine.  Of 
wild  game  they  prey  upon  such  birds  as  quail,  grouse, 
wild  ducks  and  the  eggs  of  these  at  the  breeding  sea- 
son, and  such  animals  as  mice,  gophers,  ground  squirrels, 
chipmunks,  woodchucks,  prairie  dogs,  rabbits  and  even 
house  cats.  In  addition  to  the  above  the  large  species 
of  coyotes  prey  upon  sheep,  goats,  calves,  and  various 
species  of  deer.  In  winter  they  will  invade  towns,  getting 
food  from  the  offal  of  slaughterhouses  and  other  sources. 
Timber  wolves  prey  upon  such  animals  as  sheep,  goats, 
hogs,  calves,  cattle  and  horses.  They  seldom  attack 
herded  animals. 

Coyotes,  when  looking  for  their  prey,  are  much  prone 
to  hide  behind  bushes  or  in  the  long  grass  near  to  the 
paths  which  the  smaller  wild  animals  frequently  journey 
over  and  pounce  upon  them  when  they  are  passing.  When 
they  attack  domestic  animals  they  of  necessity  have  to 
come  more  or  less  into  the  open.  They  will  seize  a  lamb 
or  a  young  pig  by  the  back  and  carry  it  away.  When 
preying  upon  mature  sheep  on  the  range  they  give  chase 
to  the  animal,  tear  out  a  piece  of  flesh,  and  then  fre- 
quently leave  it,  and  likewise  give  chase  to  another. 
When  tired  they  make  their  night  meal  upon  one  of  the 
carcases.  As  many  as  a  score  of  lambs  have  been  killed 
by  a  wolf  in  a  single  night.  It  has  been  claimed  that  one 
family  of  wolves  have  been  known  to  destroy  live  stock 
worth  not  less  than  $3,000  in  a  single  year.  Frequently 
they  hunt  alone,  but  sometimes  in  small  bands. 

The  losses  to  sheep  owners  incurred  by  wolves  is 
very  large  in  the  aggregate.  It  occurs  not  only  in  all  the 
range  states,  but  in  the  states  more  or  less  adjacent  to 


PROTECTING  SHEEP   FROM   DOGS  AND   WOLVES  381 

these  which  are  largely  under  cultivation.  These  losses 
meanwhile  do  not  grow  less,  especially  in  areas  inhabited 
by  coyotes. 

The  extent  of  the  loss  in  domestic  animals  from 
wolves  has  been  put  at  five  to  20  per  cent.  Even  in  the 
Bad  Lands  of  North  Dakota,  which  are  not  distant  from 
cultivated  areas,  as  much  as  15  per  cent  of  the  live  stock 
has  been  destroyed  by  wolves  in  a  single  season.  The 
total  losses  incurred  in  Wyoming  in  the  heart  of  the  wolf 
country  have  been  estimated  at  more  than  $1,000,000  a 
year.  To  this  loss  must  be  added  the  adverse  influence 
which  the  proximity  of  wolves  exerts  upon  farmers  and 
ranchmen,  many  of  whom  would  keep  sheep  but  for  the 
fear  of  the  loss  that  might  follow.  Those  losses  will 
assuredly  grow  less  in  time  as  the  country  becomes  more 
completely  occupied. 

Protective  measures  against  wolves — The  following 
are  among  the  protective  measures  adopted  when  seeking 
to  shield  sheep  from  the  attacks  of  wolves :  (i)  The  use  of 
bells ;  (2)  the  setting  of  traps ;  (3)  the  use  of  poison ;  (4) 
the  offering  of  bounties ;  (5)  the  agency  of  organized 
hunting;  and  (6)  the  agency  of  fencing. 

When  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  sheep  in  a 
flock  are  furnished  with  bells,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
for  a  time  at  least  the  bells  will  furnish  some  measure  of 
protection,  as  in  the  case  of  dogs  (see  page  371).  It  is 
extremely  probable,  however,  that  in  time  the  bells  would 
cease  to  frighten  the  wolves  as  at  the  first,  and  would 
so  far  cease  to  protect.  That  ranchmen  have  not  made 
any  extensive  or  general  use  of  this  means  of  protection 
would  indicate  that  they  have  no  large  measure  of  faith 
in  its  effectiveness.  In  arable  areas,  where  coyotes  are 
naturally  more  timid  and  wary  than  on  the  range,  such 
protection  will  probably  be  found  more  effective.  Coyotes 
are  so  wary  and  suspicious  that  they  are  not  easily  caught 
in  traps,  and  this  wariness  increases  with  increasing  near- 
ness to  the  haunts  of  man.  Nearly  all  the  coyotes  caught 


382  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

by  this  method  are  under  one  year  old,  indicating  clearly 
that  wariness  increases  with  age  in  the  wolves.  They 
are  sometimes  trapped  without  bait,  and  sometimes  with 
it.  In  the  former  instances  the  traps  are  sunk  level  with 
the  ground  in  a  narrow  trail,  as  in  an  opening  between 
bushes,  and  the  chain  and  trap  covered,  but  not  too 
deeply,  with  leaves  and  grass.  In  the  latter  they  are 
usually  placed  near  a  wolf  trail,  and  are  likewise  con- 
cealed with  leaves  or  grass.  Bait  is  left  near  in  large 
or  small  chunks.  It  should  be  trailed  some  distance  if 
practicable  from  the  saddle  horse  a  couple  of  days  after 
the  traps  have  been  set,  to  put  the  wolves  on  the  scent. 
It  should  be  put  in  place  from  the  saddle.  Some  trappers 
rub  their  hands  on  tainted  meat  or  with  some  scent  as  oil 
of  anise  before  handling  wolf  bait.  Nothing  less  than 
what  is  known  as  a  number  four  double  spring  trap 
should  be  used  and  the  chain  should  be  correspondingly 
strong  and  attached  to  the  trap  with  a  swivel.  The  chain 
should  be  securely  wired  to  an  anchor,  as  a  fallen  timber, 
a  strong  bush  or  twisted  iron  stakes  driven  down  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Success  in  trapping  is  in  no 
slight  degree  dependent  on  the  use  of  scents  that  will 
attract  the  wolves.  Musk  has  proved  effective  in  a  con- 
siderable degree.  Asafoetida  is  less  effective.  Urine 
taken  from  the  wolf's  bladder  is  probably  more  effective 
than  either. 

Wolves  are  not  easily  poisoned,  as  they  will  not 
readily  consume  any  food  which  has  been  handled  by 
man.  Coyotes  are  more  suspicious  regarding  such  food 
than  timber  wolves,  and  are,  therefore,  less  readily  poi- 
soned. They  may  be  poisoned  in  some  instances  by  drop- 
ping, preferably  from  the  saddle,  small  chunks  of  poi- 
soned meat,  preferably  fat,  along  a  trail.  Strychnine 
about  the  size  of  a  walnut  is  almost  the  only  poison  used, 
and  in  the  pure  sulphate  form.  The  strychnine,  as  crystals 
or  capsules,  should  be  inserted  in  the  meat  with  a  knife 
blade.  Four  grains  are  enough  for  a  mature  wolf.  The 


PROTECTING  SHEEP   FROM    DOGS   AND   WOLVES  383 

pieces  of  meat  should  be  handled  with  gloves  and  may 
be  carried  in  a  pail.  They  are  best  dropped  along  a 
scented  drag  line,  made  by  dragging  a  piece  of  hide  or  a 
dead  rabbit,  bleeding  more  or  less,  over  the  ground  or 
along  a  wolf  trail,  or  they  may  be  put  under  carcasses  on 
which  wolves  are  feeding.  In  some  instances  wolves  will 
dig  up  poisoned  bait  and  eat  it,  when  they  would  not 
touch  it  if  exposed.  Young  wolves  are  much  more  readily 
poisoned  than  old  ones. 

For  many  years  past  bounties  have  been  offered  for 
wolf  skins  in  all  or  nearly  all  the  states  infected  by 
wolves.  These  state  bounties  have  ranged  from  25  cents 
upward,  seldom  falling  below  $2  for  a  young  wolf  skin, 
and  in  some  instances  amounting  to  several  times  that 
sum  for  a  grown  female.  These  have  been  supplemented 
by  bounties  paid  by  live  stock  associations  and  the  owners 
of  live  stock.  These  supplementary  bounties  have  raised 
the  earnings  of  the  hunter  to  not  less  than  $15  for  some 
classes  of  skins,  and  in  some  instances  that  amount  has 
been  exceeded.  The  hunter  also  gets  from  50  cents  to  $6 
for  the  skins,  according  to  the  quality. 

Enormous  sums  relatively  have  been  paid  out  in 
bounties.  In  California  an  act  was  passed  in  1891,  mak- 
ing the  bounty  on  coyotes  $57  each.  During  the  18 
months  that  the  act  was  in  force  that  state  paid  out 
$187,485  on  wolf  hides.  In  Kansas  in  the  year  following 
July  i,  1903,  bounties  were  paid  on  20,000  wolf  skins.  The 
Standard  cattle  company  operating  in  Wyoming  in  a 
single  year  paid  bounties  on  wolves  amounting  to  nearly 
$2,500,  the  bounty  being  $5  a  hide. 

That  the  offering  of  bounties  has  made  the  number 
of  wolves  considerably  less  than  it  would  otherwise  have 
been  cannot  be  questioned.  The  discouraging  thing  about 
it,  however,  is,  first,  that  it  has  not  gone  far  toward  the 
extermination  of  wolves,  and,  second,  that  it  has  led  to 
the  fraudulent  practices  on  the  part  of  wolf  hunters. 


384  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

Meantime,  however,  it  would  clearly  be  a  mistake  to  cease 
to  offer  bounties  for  wolf  hides. 

Wolf  hunts  are  frequently  conducted  in  various  por- 
tions of  the  range  country.  Horsemen  go  out  in  different 
directions  and  drive  the  wolves  toward  a  center,  where 
they  are  dispatched  in  various  ways,  but  chiefly  by  dogs. 
The  most  useful  dogs  in  hunting  wolves  are  staghounds, 
Russian  wolf  hounds,  greyhounds  and  their  crosses.  The 
ordinary  greyhound  can  easily  overtake  a  coyote,  but  is 
usually  unable  to  kill  it  unaided.  Three  dogs  are  fre- 
quently needed  to  successfully  chase  and  kill  a  coyote. 
This  method  of  hunting  is  costly  in  horseflesh  and  in  the 
time  of  the  riders,  and  in  some  instances  in  dogs.  By 
watching  near  the  dens  before  daylight  old  wolves  may 
sometimes  be  shot  on  their  return  from  a  nocturnal  trip. 
But  in  no  way  can  they  be  destroyed  so  effectively  and  so 
easily  as  by  capturing  the  young  in  the  breeding  dens.  A 
spade  is  usually  necessary*  as  an  aid  to  getting  into  the 
dens  and  a  stout  hook  on  the  end  of  a  stick  will  aid  in 
getting  them  out  of  the  crevices.  One  of  the  most  effec- 
tive means  of  protecting  sheep  from  wolves  is  to  confine 
them  within  fences  of  suitable  construction.  At  the  first  a 
few  barb  wires  properly  stretched  will  keep  out  coyotes, 
but  in  time  these  will  not  prove  effective.  For  the  con- 
struction of  a  fence  that  will  protect,  see  page  372.  Such 
fencing  is  very  suitable  for  corrals  which  are  indispensa- 
ble in  the  range  country.  It  is  costly,  however,  under 
ordinary  range  conditions,  but  increased  revenue  will 
accrue  from  the  complete  control  which  it  gives  the 
ranchman  over  the  management  of  at  least  a  portion  of 
his  grazing  grounds. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  MORE  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  SHEEP 

The  discussion  in  Chapter  XIX  dwells  briefly  on  the 
following:  (i)  The  prevention  and  treatment  of  disease 
in  sheep;  (2)  Parasites  that  prey  externally  on  sheep; 
(3)  Parasites  that  prey  internally  on  sheep ;  (4)  Ailments 
from  digestive  sources ;  (5)  Ailments  affecting  the  organs 
of  respiration;  (6)  Ailments  arising  from  reproduction; 
(7)  Ailments  that  affect  the  limbs ;  (8)  Ailments  peculiar 
to  lambs ;  and  (9)  Ailments  miscellaneous  in  character. 

Protection  and  treatment  of  disease — Treatment  for 
diseases  and  other  ailments  of  sheep  are  very  commonly 
less  satisfactory  than  with  any  other  class  of  domestic 
animals.  This  is  probably  owing :  (i)  To  the  peculiar 
location  of  many  of  the  ailments  that  afflict  sheep,  which 
makes  treatment  unusually  difficult.  Such  are  the  ail- 
ments of  stomach  worms,  which  make  their  abode  in  the 
fourth  stomach ;  of  grub  in  the  head,  which  is  located  in 
the  nasal  sinuses,  so  close  to  the  brain  as  to  be  practically 
unreachable ;  and  goiter  in  lambs,  which  is  located  in  the 
glands  of  the  throat.  (2)  To  the  absence  of  that  strong 
vitality  that  is  essential  to  ability  to  stand  up  sturdily  for 
a  time  at  least  in  the  face  of  attack.  This  is  evidenced  in 
attacks  of  bloat,  where  the  percentage  of  the  losses  under 
treatment  is  much  larger  than  the  percentage  of  losses 
from  cattle  that  are  treated  for  the  same.  (3)  To  the 
further  fact  that  it  would  seem  true  that  the  veterinary 
profession  have  centered  less  on  the  study  of  the  ail- 
ments of  sheep  than  on  those  of  the  horse  and  the  cow, 
since  the  latter  are  relatively  more  valuable. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  apparent  that  pre- 
ventive measures  for  guarding  sheep  against  diseases  will 
be  doubly  important.  While  treatment  for  tapeworm  and 
stomach  worm  is  difficult,  and  not  infrequently  unsatis- 

385 


386  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

factory,  it  is  possible  when  selecting  the  foundation  ani- 
mals for  a  flock  to  be  practically  sure  that  they  are  not 
thus  affected.  This  may  be  known  from  the  previous 
history  of  the  flock.  It  is  also  possible  to  keep  the  flock 
away  from  wet  pastures  that  favor  increase  in  such  para- 
sites when  they  are  present.  Similarly,  while  but  little 
can  be  done  by  way  of  treatment  for  goiter,  it  is  quite 
practicable  to  breed  only  from  dams  that  do  not  usually 
give  birth  to  lambs  that  are  not  thus  affected,  In  other 
words,  it  is  possible  to  discard  for  breeding  uses  all 
females  that  have  given  birth  to  lambs  in  which  goiter 
has  developed.  It  is  also  practicable  to  keep  sheep  under 
conditions  that  will  prevent  them  from  drinking  in  dirty 
pools  which  favor  the  development  of  nodule  disease,  and 
to  shield  them,  at  least  measurably,  from  the  gadfly  which 
lays  the  egg  that  ultimately  develops  into  grub  in  the 
head.  All  such  preventive  measures  are  practicable, 
while  the  successful  treatment  of  some  at  least  of  the  ail- 
ments of  sheep  is  virtually  an  impossibility. 

While  proper  environment  and  suitable  care  are  im- 
portant with  all  classes  of  live  stock,  these  would  seem  to 
be  doubly  important  in  the  case  of  sheep.  All  experience 
in  the  past  has  shown:  (i)  That  sheep  will  keep  much 
more  healthy  on  dry  and  rolling  pastures  than  on  those 
opposite  in  character;  (2)  that  pure  living  water  is  essen- 
tial to  the  well-being  of  sheep ;  and  (3)  that  they  do  not 
stand  up  well  under  close  confinement.  It  is  certainly 
much  wiser  to  aim  to  furnish  such  conditions  than  to 
neglect  to  furnish  them  and  later  to  have  to  grapple  with 
the  ailments  which  their  absence  gives  rise  to. 

Proper  care  that  will  prevent  troubles  from  arising 
in  the  flock  is  also  to  be  greatly  preferred  to  the  necessity 
for  dealing  with  these  should  they  arise  as  the  result  of 
lack  of  care.  For  instance,  it  is  vastly  easier  to  keep  sheep 
in  sleeping  sheds  free  from  drafts  than  to  cure  catarrh, 
which  comes  as  the  result  of  exposure  to  drafts.  It  is 
much  easier  to  furnish  succulent  food  that  wards  off  in- 


THE    MORE    COMMON    AILMENTS   OF    SHEEP  387 

digestion  than  to  deal  with  indigestion  should  it  arise, 
and  it  is  vastly  easier  to  keep  the  farmer's  flock  away 
from  infestation  of  scab  mites  than  to  deal  with  scab 
should  it  come. 

Parasites  that  prey  externally  on  sheep — The  prin- 
cipal of  these  are  three  in  number,  viz.,  the  sheep  tick, 
the  scab  mite  and  the  sheep  louse.  Of  these  the  scab 
mite  is  altogether  the  most  harmful.  The  sheep  tick  is 
more  or  less  in  evidence  wherever  sheep  are  kept  on  this 
continent,  but  not  necessarily  so.  The  sheep  louse  is  not 
greatly  prevalent  in  America. 

The  sheep  tick  (Melophagus  avinnus)  was  introduced 
from  the  Old  World.  It  is  a  wingless  fly.  When  full 
grown  it  is  less  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long.  The 
body  is  short,  flattened  and  varying  in  color  from  white 
to  reddish.  The  color  is  influenced  somewhat  by  the 
amount  of  blood  which  it  has  taken  from  the  sheep.  The 
ticks  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  the  spider  in  form, 
but  the  limbs  are  very  much  shorter.  The  sheep  tick 
propagates  by  means  of  the  eggs  laid  by  the  females. 
These  are  relatively  large,  flat  and  ovoid  in  shape  and 
brown  in  color.  Within  each  is  an  imperfectly  developed 
larva.  The  eggs,  usually  spoken  of  in  common  phrase 
as  "nits,"  are  made  to  adhere  to  the  wool  by  a  sticky  sub- 
stance which  covers  them  when  they  are  first  laid.  But 
one  is  deposited  at  a  time,  and  it  is  thought  the  female 
seldom  lays  more  than  7  or  8  eggs  in  her  lifetime,  and  the 
number  is  probably  less  than  the  figures  named,  a  fact 
which  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  possible  eradica- 
tion of  the  pest.  They  hatch  in  some  instances  in  about 
four  weeks  from  the  time  when  they  are  laid. 

They  occur  on  sheep  at  all  seasons,  but  are  usually 
most  numerous  and  troublesome  toward  the  approach  of 
spring.  They  cannot  live  long  away  from  the  body  of  the 
sheep,  the  warmth  of  which  seems  to  be  essential  to  their 
existence  in  conjunction  with  the  food  which  they  obtain 
from  it  and  the  protection  furnished  by  the  wool.  Their 


388  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

food  consists  wholly  of  blood,  which  they  take  through 
the  proboscis  with  which  they  penetrate  the  skin. 

The  injury  which  they  inflict  comes  chiefly  from  the 
prolonged  itching  which  follows  the  puncture  of  the  skin. 
When  present  in  large  numbers,  the  annoyance  resulting 
is  very  great.  When  the  wool  is  removed  by  shearing, 
the  ticks,  in  great  measure  at  least,  leave  the  old  sheep. 
They  either  perish  or  become  transferred  to  the  lambs. 
To  these  they  are  oftentimes  a  source  of  great  annoyance, 
because  of  their  numbers,  and  also  because  of  the  greater 
ease  with  which  they  may  puncture  the  tender  skin  of  the 
lambs.  Evidences  of  the  discomfort  are  manifested  in  the 
extent  to  which  they  bite  at  themselves  and  rub  against 
external  objects.  For  treatment  see  Chapter  XX. 

Sheep  scab  is  so  called  from  the  scabs  which  come  on 
the  skin  and  which  are  the  outcome  of  inflammation  re- 
sulting from  the  innumerable  bites  of  the  scab  mites  when 
taking  their  food.  Three  classes  or  species  of  scab  mites 
infest  sheep.  The  first  is  known  as  Sarcoptes  scabiei,  the 
second  as  Chorioptes  communis  and  the  third  Psoroptes 
communis.  The  first  causes  scab  on  the  head  the  second 
scab  on  the  feet,  and  the  third  scab  on  various  parts  of 
the  body.  That  named  last  is  by  far  the  most  common 
of  the  three  and  also  by  far  the  most  harmful.  The  life 
history  of  the  three  is  very  similar. 

The  scab  mite  (Sarcoptes  scabiei)  is  so  small  as  to  be  al- 
most invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  but  its  presence  may  be 
known  by  the  scabs  which  result  and  the  location  of  these. 
They  are  first  noticed  on  those  portions  of  the  head  that  are 
comparatively  free  from  hair  and  grease,  as  on  the  upper 
lip,  the  nostrils  and  around  the  eyelids  and  ears.  From 
these  starting  points  they  gradually  spread  over  various 
parts  of  the  head.  For  treatment  the  application  of  some 
one  of  the  approved  scab  dips  or  ointments  (see  Chapter 
XX)  will  suffice  in  the  early  stages  of  the  infection,  but 
in  the  more  advanced  stages  it  may  be  necessary  to  first 


THE   MORE   COMMON   AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  389 

soften  the  scabs  with  some  kind  of  oil  or  grease  and  then 
to  remove  them  with  soap  and  water. 

The  mite,  Chorioptes  communis,  occurs  so  rarely  that 
it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  discuss  it.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  it  usually  begins  on  the  feet  and  extends 
upwards.  The  skin  when  attacked  shows  an  inflamed 
condition  followed  by  free  scaling  of  the  same,  and  this 
in  turn  is  followed  by  the  forming  of  yellowish-colored 
crusts,  beneath  which  the  parasites  congregate.  For- 
tunately this  trouble  is  not  readily  communicated  to  other 
sheep,  and  it  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  Sarcoptes 
scabiei,  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

The  mite,  Psoroptes  communis,  is  by  far  the  most 
troublesome  and  harmful  of  all  the  external  parasites 
which  prey  upon  sheep.  The  trouble  resulting  is  now 
more  commonly  referred  to  as  body  scab.  So  great  has 
been  the  loss  resulting  from  its  presence  that  legislation 
has  been  enacted  in  many  countries  with  a  view  to  pre- 
vent its  spread  and  in  the  hope  of  ultimately  bringing 
about  its  eradication.  Although  it  infests  goats,  com- 
munication usually  comes  from  other  sheep  or  from  the 
quarters  which  they  have  inhabited  or  visited  not  long 
previously. 

This  mite,  though  small,  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  life  history  of  all  these  mites  is  very  similar.  They 
attack  the  external  skin  by  biting  it  in  search  of  food. 
Scabs  quickly  form  as  the  result  of  the  irritation  that  fol- 
lows. This  irritation  is  thought  to  be,  in  part  at  least, 
the  outcome  of  a  poisonous  fluid  which  accompanies  the 
bite.  Under  the  scabs  the  mites  lay  their  eggs.  These 
eggs  hatch  in  2  to  3  days,  and  the  mites  reach  the  adult 
stage  in  about  15  days.  As  each  adult  female  lays  about 
T5  eggs,  the  multiplication  of  the  mites  is  eventually 
almost  without  limit,  and  it  only  leaves  with  the  death  of 
the  sheep  or  v/ith  the  removal  of  the  mites  through  treat- 
ment. 

The  mite,  Psoroptes  communis,  attacks  sheep  of  all 


39°  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

classes  and  ages.  Unlike  the  mite  that  produces  head 
scab,  it  works  underneath  a  covering  of  wool,  and  appar- 
ently preferably  where  the  wool  is  longest.  Consequently 
the  autumn  and  winter  are  the  most  favorable  to  its  dis- 
tribution. Other  influences  that  favor  rapid  multiplica- 
tion in  the  mites  are  such  as  pertain  to  old  age,  to  lack  of 
stamina  generally  and  to  insanitary  surroundings. 

The  indications  that  point  to  the  probable  presence 
of  scab  are  the  rubbing  of  the  sheep  against  external  ob- 
jects and  the  attempts  to  bite  themselves.  Soon  the  coats 
become  rough,  taggy  and  ragged.  Examination  may 
show  the  insects  themselves.  At  first  when  attacked  by 
the  scab  mites  minute  elevations  appear  on  the  skin 
slightly  more  white  or  yellow  than  the  surrounding  skin. 
These  become  so  numerous  at  length  as  to  unite.  From 
the  summit  of  each  a  watery  serous  fluid  exudes  which 
leads  eventually  to  covering  the  skin  with  a  yellowish 
scaly  layer  under  which  the  parasites  hide.  These  sur- 
faces continually  enlarge  by  the  mites  working  outward. 
The  mites  usually  begin  their  attacks  along  the  back  and 
carry  to  the  neck  glands  and  rump.  They  congregate 
most  around  the  edges  of  the  scabs. 

The  losses  from  scab  to  flockmasters  through  the 
presence  of  scab  in  the  aggregate  are  very  great.  These 
losses  occur:  (i)  Through  ill-doing  on  the  part  of  the 
sheep ;  (2)  through  loss  by  death  which  may  result  from 
scab  directly  or  indirectly  through  disease  favored  by  the 
enfeebled  condition  resulting  because  of  the  presence  of 
scab ;  and  (3)  through  the  cost  of  the  curative  methods 
that  are  necessary  to  free  the  flock  from  the  presence  of 
the  mites.  The  suffering  endured  by  the  sheep  thus  at- 
tacked is  exceedingly  great.  The  mites  are  communicated 
by  contact  with  tufts  of  wool  torn  from  the  bodies  of  in- 
fected sheep.  In  these  the  mites  which  are  exposed  even 
to  low  temperatures  may  live  for  20  days.  (For  treat- 
ment see  Chapter  XXI). 

The  sheep  louse  of  the  genus  Trlchodectes  is  not  very 


THE    MORE   COMMON    AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  39! 

common  in  this  country.  It  is  a  small  creature  about  1-25 
of  an  inch  in  length,  with  white  body  and  a  reddish  head. 
It  is  found  more  commonly  on  poorly  sheep  and  in  places 
where  the  wool  is  not  plentiful,  as  between  the  legs  and 
body.  The  eggs  are  laid  at  the  base  of  the  wool  fibers. 
When  numerously  present  their  bite  leads  to  a  roughened 
scabby  skin,  which  induces  discomfort,  shown  by  the  at- 
tempt to  scratch  and  bite  the  affected  parts.  The  remedy 
is  the  same  as  for  ticks  (see  Chapter  XXI). 

Parasites  that  prey  internally  on  sheep — The  more 
harmful  of  these  are  :  The  stomach  worm,  tapeworm,  lung 
worm,  the  worm  that  is  associated  with  nodule  disease 
and  grub  in  the  head.  These  do  not  include  nearly  all  the 
parasites  of  this  class/but  those  not  included  seldom  lead 
to  serious  loss  in  the  flocks. 

The  stomach  worm  (Haemouchus  contortus)  leads  to 
greater  loss  in  the  flock,  and  mainly  through  the  loss  of 
lambs,  than  any  other  ailment  that  affects  the  sheep  of 
this  continent.  It  is  a  small  hairlike  worm  that  inhabits 
the  fourth  stomach  of  sheep  and  goats.  When  present 
they  may  be  found  in  all  stages  of  growth  in  the  same. 
Immediately  after  the  slaughter  of  an  infested  lamb  they 
may  be  found  adhering  by  their  heads  to  the  mucous 
membrane,  and  oftentimes  in  immense  numbers.  At  such 
a  time  they  are  of  a  reddish  color.  This  may  result  in 
part  at  least  from  their  feeding  on  the  blood  of  the  vic- 
tim. This  parasite  has  doubtless  been  brought  from  the 
Old  World.  It  has  long  been  more  or  less  prevalent  in 
the  southwestern  states  and  territories,  where  it  was 
called  lombriz,  a  corruption  of  the  Spanish  word  lombrici, 
which  means  worms.  It  now  gives  more  or  less  trouble 
in  all  or  nearly  all  the  states  of  the  Union  and  the  prov- 
inces of  Canada. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  between  the 
symptoms  present  resulting  from  stomach  worms  as  com- 
pared with  those  resulting  from  the  presence  of  some 
other  parasites.  Prominent  among  these,  however,  are 


392  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

an  emaciated  condition,  a  pale  skin,  a  dry  harsh  coat,  a 
moping  gait  and  diarrhea.  One  of  the  surest  evidences, 
however,  when  it  is  present,  is  the  small  white  worm  in 
the  droppings.  Usually  no  positive  symptoms  occur  un- 
til after  the  lambs  have  been  affected  for  some  time. 
When  death  occurs,  it  is  generally  soon  after  the  symp- 
toms have  become  prominent.  The  trouble  affects  old 
sheep  as  well,  but  they  are  much  less  harmed  than  lambs 
by  the  presence  of  the  worms.  Death  from  this  source 
occurs  mainly  among  lambs  that  have  access  to  pastures 
at  a  somewhat  early  age. 

The  life  history  of  the  stomach  worm  is  in  outline  as 
follows :  The  worms  occur  in  largest  numbers  in  the 
fourth  stomach  of  the  sheep.  In  the  adult  sexual  stage 
they  are  able  to  live  and  carry  out  their  reproductive 
functions  only  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  sheep  and  some 
other  ruminants.  Each  female  produces  thousands  of 
eggs  very  diminutive  in  size.  They  pass  out  of  the  in- 
testines with  the  feces.  In  a  few  hours,  days  or  weeks, 
according  to  the  temperature,  they  hatch  out,  if  not  killed 
by  drying  or  freezing.  The  tiny  embryonic  worms  then 
develop  to  what  may  be  termed  the  final  larval  or  infec- 
tious stage.  This  period  of  development  requires  days  or 
weeks,  according  to  the  temperature.  In  the  infectious 
stage  they  can  withstand  long  periods  of  drought  and 
cold.  When  in  that  stage  they  are  most  active  in  the 
presence  of  moisture,  as  during  wet  weather  or  when 
dews  and  fogs  abound  they  crawl  up  grass  blades  and 
thus  readily  reach  the  stomach  of  sheep  and  lambs.  In 
some  instances  they  must  develop  very  quickly,  as  they 
are  found  in  lambs  in  immense  numbers  that  are  less  than 
three  months  old. 

This  theory  of  the  source  and  manner  of  infection 
finds  support  in  experiments  conducted  by  the  author  at 
the  Minnesota  station.  When  the  lambs  were  confined 
to  the  sheds  and  fed  on  soiling  foods  to  supplement  the 
milk  of  the  dams,  they  were  free  from  attack ;  whereas  the 


THE    MORE   COMMON   AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  393 

previous  year  the  loss  of  lambs  produced  by  the  same 
dams,  though  grazed  on  the  same  pastures,  was  serious. 
It  is  true,  nevertheless,  as  experiment  has  shown,  that  in- 
fection is  possible  when  both  dams  and  lambs  are  con- 
fined to  the  pens,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  occur  in  any  con- 
siderable degree.  When  guarding  against  this  disease, 
preventive  measures  are  greatly  important.  These  in- 
clude :  (i)  Using  great  care  when  introducing  the  founda- 
tion stock  on  which  the  future  flock  is  to  be  built;  (2) 
grazing  lambs  on  new  rather  than  old  pastures  while  they 
are  young;  (3)  changing  the  pastures  frequently;  (4) 
sustaining  vigor  in  the  lambs  by  feeding  nourishing  foods 
to  them;  (5)  giving  food  in  racks  and  water  in  troughs 
when  practicable.  When  choosing  the  material  on  which 
to  found  a  flock,  if  the  assurance  is  present  that  no  indica- 
tions of  stomach  worm  have  ever  visited  the  flock,  it  is, 
in  a  sense,  certain  that  introductions  from  that  flock  will 
not  bring  stomach  worms  with  them,  especially  if  the 
flock  is  one  that  has  been  long  established  and  has  not 
recently  been  reinforced  from  outside  sources.  It  will 
also  be  necessary  to  proceed  in  the  same  cautious  manner 
should  materials  be  brought  in  subsequently  from  outside 
sources  to  reinforce  the  flock.  While  introducing  the 
lambs  to  new  pastures  will  not  in  itself  be  a  guaranty 
against  invasion,  it  will  lessen  the  hazard,  and  this  will 
be  still  further  reduced  if  the  pastures  are  grown  from 
cereals  sown  purposely  to  make  them.  The  lambs  do  not 
graze  these  so  closely  as  they  would  old  pastures,  espe- 
cially when  the  herbage  is  plentiful ;  hence  they  are  less 
liable  to  invasion  by  the  parasites.  Such  pastures  are  also 
much  less  liable  to  be  infested  by  the  larvae.  If  the  lambs 
come  quite  early  in  the  season,  especially  in  northern 
areas,  they  will  be  so  far  grown  that  they  will  be  more  re- 
sistant to  the  sapping  influences  resulting  from  the  pres- 
ence of  the  worms.  If  the  lambs  are  to  be  maintained 
within  the  yards  while  the  old  sheep  go  out  to  the  pas- 
tures this  process  will  be  facilitated  by  giving  the  lambs 


394  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

food  within  a  creep  and  then  removing  the  dams  from  the 
yards  while  they  are  eating.  If  the  lambs  are  to  remain 
with  the  dams,  it  is  specially  important  that  the  latter 
shall  be  put  onto  fresh  grazing  at  the  time  of  turning 
them  out  to  graze.  When  the  pastures  are  changed  fre- 
quently, the  lambs  are  much  less  liable  to  take  up  the 
germs  than  when  they  graze  closely.  If  the  lambs  are 
fed  heavily  on  supplemental  foods,  they  are  much  less 
liable  to  succumb  to  the  attacks  of  the  disease.  This  is 
probably  owing  to  the  greater  power  of  resistance  which 
the  liberal  feeding  brings  to  them.  Such  foods  as  oilcake 
and  oats  are  well  suited  to  such  feeding.  Where  the  fod- 
der is  fed  in  racks  rather  than  on  the  ground,  the  hazard 
of  taking  up  the  germs  is  obviated,  and  the  same  is  true 
when  the  water  also  is  pumped  up  from  wells  into 
troughs  from  which  it  is  taken  by  the  sheep. 

Several  remedies  have  been  used  which  have  proved 
at  least  reasonably  effective  when  properly  administered. 
The  two  that  stand  high  in  favor  at  the  present  time  are 
known  as  the  turpentine  and  gasoline  treatments  respec- 
tively. Of  these  the  latter  is  now  more  commonly  used. 
The  spirits  of  turpentine  is  best  given  as  an  emulsion, 
obtained  by  mixing  it  with  milk.  The  dose  for  a  lamb 
three  to  four  months  old  is  a  teaspoonful  of  turpentine  in 
about  six  times  the  quantity  of  milk.  The  two  should  be 
well  mixed,  which  is  accomplished  by  shaking  the  com- 
bination. The  gasoline  is  given  in  flaxseed  tea  of  thin 
consistency  or  sweet  milk.  The  dose  is  from  one  tea- 
spoonful  to  one  tablespoonful,  according  to  the  age  and 
size  of  the  animal  to  be  treated.  The  gasoline  is  poured 
into  a  bottle  containing  4  ounces  of  the  tea  or  milk.  Two 
teaspoonfuls  of  the  gasoline  are  required  for  a  5o-pound 
lamb.  The  two  are  well  shaken  before  being  adminis- 
tered. A  small  measuring  glass,  known  as  a  graduate, 
should  be  used  in  measuring  the  ingredients.  This  treat- 
ment has  practically  superseded  the  turpentine  and  also 


THE    MORE    COMMON    AILMENTS  OF    SHEEP  395 

the  benzine  treatment,  popular  at  one  time,  being  cheaper 
than  either  and  at  least  as  effective. 

When  given  the  treatment,  the  animals  should  be 
yarded  and  fed  in  the  early  evening.  The  treatment 
should  be  administered  the  next  morning  at  a  late  hour 
on  an  empty  stomach.  They  should  be  thus  managed 
from  day  to  day  during  the  continuance  of  the  treatments. 
It  is  recommended  that  three  treatments  should  follow  on 
as  many  consecutive  days,  especially  in  the  case  of  the 
lambs.  In  cases  of  very  serious  infection  the  lambs 
should  be  again  dosed  once  a  week,  and  all  the  lambs  in 
the  flock  should  be  treated.  The  ewes  should  also  be 
treated,  but  not  necessarily  to  the  same  extent  as  the 
lambs. 

Sheep  are  drenched  from  a  horn  or  a  stout  glass 
drenching  bottle.  Two  persons  are  called  for  to  accom- 
plish the  work.  One  throws  the  sheep  on  its  buttock  and 
holds  it  between  his  legs  with  the  back  toward  him.  The 
lower  jaw  is  held  in  his  left  hand,  which  raises  the  head 
to  the  level  of  the  line  of  the  back,  but  not  higher.  The 
right  hand  may  grasp  the  upper  jaw  or  pull  outward  the 
pouch  of  the  side  of  the  jaws.  The  other  places  the  mouth 
of  the  drenching  bottle  well  up  against  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  and  pours  slowly,  to  avoid  strangling.  A  moderate 
amount  of  the  mixture  is  better  than  a  large  amount,  as 
it  is  more  completely  retained  in  the  fourth  stomach. 
During  recent  years,  administering  the  drench  to  sheep 
while  they  are  in  a  standing  posture  has  grown  rapidly 
in  favor,  and  the  practice  is  sustained  by  some  good 
reasons. 

Some  shepherds  feed  certain  mixtures  as  antidotes 
during  more  or  less  of  the  year.  Tobacco  dust  has  been 
fed  along  with  sulphur,  copperas  and  salt.  Others  feed 
proprietary  worm  powders.  The  evidences  in  favor  of 
the  value  of  such  feeding  are  far  from  being  completely 
convincing. 

The  tapeworm  (Taenia  expansa),  though  not  as  harm- 


39^  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

ful  to  sheep  in  America  as  the  stomach  worm,  especially 
in  tillable  areas  is  frequently  a  source  of  very  great  loss 
to  the  flockmaster.  Introduced  from  Europe,  it  is  now 
virtually  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  Although  found  at  all  seasons,  it  is  usually 
most  troublesome  in  the  late  spring,  summer  and  autumn. 
Some  seasons  it  is  epizootic,  as  it  were,  especially  among 
lambs,  but  it  may  also  cause  loss  among  yearlings.  Damp 
moist  weather  and  heavy  and  moist  soil  conditions  are 
more  favorable  to  its  spread  than  conditions  the  opposite. 
Among  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  the  following: 
The  lambs  become  emaciated,  notwithstanding  liberal 
feeding.  The  mucous  membranes  become  pale,  which  has 
led  to  the  designation  "paper  skin"  sometimes  applied  to 
the  disease.  The  wool  becomes  dry  and  harsh  from  want 
of  the  usual  yolk  supply.  They  take  more  and  more  a 
woebegone  appearance,  accompanied  by  a  moping  and 
staggering  gait.  The  symptoms  are  in  many  respects 
like  those  accompanying  the  invasion  of  stomach  worms. 
They  may  be  distinguished  from  the  latter  after  the  dis- 
ease has  made  some  progress  by  the  presence  of  the  small 
white  oblong  segments  of  the  worms,  which  are  voided 
by  the  affected  animals.  These  adhere  to  the  pellets  of 
the  droppings,  also  to  the  wool  and  dirt  around  the  tail 
head.  As  the  trouble  progresses  diarrhea  becomes  more 
and  more  pronounced,  and  the  animals  affected  frequently 
die  from  exhaustion.  Other  troubles  may  also  attack  them 
in  their  weakened  condition  and  hasten  the  end.  The 
desire  for  food  and  drink  may  increase  rather  than  dimin- 
ish until  near  the  end.  The  life  history  is,  in  substance, 
as  follows :  The  embryos  pass  from  sheep  to  sheep,  but 
through  an  intermediary,  as,  for  instance,  the  dog.  It  is 
believed  that  they  are  taken  in  the  food  when  grazing,  and 
especially  on  short  pastures,  and  also  in  the  water  when 
they  may  drink  from  pools  or  ponds.  They  develop 
rapidly  by  producing  segments  at  the  rear  end  which  be- 
come broader  and  shorter  as  growth  progresses.  The 


THE  MORE   COMMON   AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  397 

eggs  are  developed  within  the  segments.  When  mature 
they  are  shed  in  the  excrement.  The  time  of  growth  oc- 
cupies from  two  to  three  months.  The  number  present 
may  run  all  the  way  from,  say,  two  or  three  to  100,  but 
more  commonly  they  seldom  exceed  half  a  dozen  in  one 
animal.  The  adult  worm  is  about  15  feet  long.  The 
width  varies  from  1-25  of  an  inch  at  the  head  to  ^4  of  an 
inch  at  the  other  extremity.  The  thickness  varies  from 
i-io  to  1-12  of  an  inch,  but  these  measures  are  subject  to 
wide  variations.  The  large  growth  so  fills  the  small  in- 
testines that  they  obstruct  the  digestive  processes  while 
they  abstract  nutriment  from  the  food  materials  present 
for  growth.  The  disease  is  present  to  some  extent 
through  all  the  year,  but  it  is  chiefly  harmful  to  lambs 
and  during  the  first  two  or  three  months  of  grazing. 
Worms  have  been  found  in  lambs  two  to  four  months 
old  from  6  to  15  feet  long,  so  rapidly  do  they  grow.  After 
sheep  pass  the  age  of  18  months  they  seldom  die  from 
tapeworm,  but  they  harbor  the  parasites  more  or  less. 
The  chief  losses  are  with  lambs  under  the  age  of  six 
months,  and  they  give  more  trouble  in  wet  seasons  and 
on  damp  pastures  than  under  conditions  the  opposite.  As 
in  the  case  of  stomach  worms,  preventive  measures  are 
more  efficacious  than  treatment.  These  are  practically 
the  same  as  for  stomach  worms  (see  page  393).  Where 
it  can  be  done,  confining  the  lambs  to  the  sheds  or  corrals 
until  near  the  weaning  season  is  a  very  sure  means  of 
protection.  This  is  most  easily  accomplished  with  lambs 
that  come  early  in  the  season. 

The  treatment  for  the  worm  is  in  many  respects  sim- 
ilar to  that  given  in  the  case  of  stomach  worms  (see 
page  394),  but  other  treatment  is  sometimes  resorted  to. 
Formerly  a  decoction  of  pumpkin  seeds  was  used  as  treat- 
ment, but  the  materials  for  making  it  are-  not  easy  to 
obtain  in  large  quantity  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  An- 
other and  equally  effective  remedy  is  two  drams  of  male 
fern  given  in  two  to  four  ounces  of  castor  oil,  or  two 


398  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

drams  of  powdered  areca  nut  and  one  dram  of  male  fern 
given  in  four  ounces  of  syrup.  The  above  is  the  dose 
for  a  large  lamb  and  a  shearling.  For  sheep  the  dose 
should  be  increased  from  50  to  100  per  cent.  It  is  given 
in  the  morning  after  an  all-night  fast.  Large  lambs  and 
yearlings  must  be  treated  before  weakness  is  marked. 

The  fringed  tapeworm  (Taenia  fimbriata)  is  very  con- 
siderably harmful  to  sheep  south  of  the  parallel  45  degrees 
north  and  in  much  of  the  area  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  parasites  are  found  in  the  duodenum  and  the  gall 
ducts.  They  are  frequently  very  numerously  present  and 
are  of  various  sizes,  thus  indicating  continued  invasion. 
They  develop  very  slowly.  The  life  history  is  not  fully 
known,  hence  the  most  effective  methods  of  dealing  with 
the  evil  are  not  known.  Preventive  measures  such  as  are 
used  in  the  case  of  stomach  worms  will  be  helpful  (see 
Page  393)- 

Lung  worms  in  sheep  are  of  two  kinds.  These  are 
known  respectively  as  the  hair  lung  worm  and  the  thread 
lung  worm.  The  former  of  these  is  probably  the  more 
widely  diffused,  but  the  latter  is  more  epizootic  in  flocks 
than  the  former.  The  hair  lung  worm  penetrates  the  air 
passages  of  the  lungs  to  their  termination.  The  thread 
lung  worm  penetrates  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  symp- 
toms of  these  ailments  and  also  the  life  history  of  the 
worms  is  not  greatly  different. 

The  hair  lung  worm  (Strongylus  ovis  pulmonis)  is 
considered  the  smaller  of  the  two.  Until  the  disease  is 
well  advanced  its  presence  may  not  be  detected  except  by 
post  mortem.  When  present,  little  tubercles  may  be 
found  in  the  lungs.  When  these  are  cut  open,  there  is 
a  worm  inside.  The  mating  takes  place  in  the  bronchi 
and  soon  the  worms  are  produced  to  further  aggravate 
the  trouble.  The  hair  lung  worm  (Strongylus  filaria) 
when  present  may  be  found  by  slitting  open  the  bronchial 
tubes. 


THE    MORE   COMMON   AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  399 

The  symptoms  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  may 
be  mistaken  for  those  caused  by  some  other  ailments. 
Sheep  that  are  seriously  affected  with  either  disease  have 
pale  mucous  membranes,  a  coat  harsh  and  dry,  more  or 
less  difficulty  in  breathing,  and  in  many  instances  a  deep 
cough.  Both  ailments  are  of  rather  slow  development, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  hair  lung  worm;  hence  the 
losses  that  occur  are  in  old  rather  than  in  young  sheep. 
Such  ailments  as  bronchitis  and  pneumonia  are  much 
more  rapid  in  their  action.  The  losses  occur  to  a  greater 
extent  from  lack  of  thrift  than  from  deaths  in  the  flock. 

The  life  history  of  the  hair  and  thread  lung  worms 
respectively  is  not  far  different.  The  young  of  both  es- 
cape from  the  lungs  of  the  sheep  oftentimes  while  in  the 
act  of  coughing.  They  are  scattered  over  the  yards  and 
pastures  where  sheep  take  their  food  and  drink,  and  prob- 
ably through  the  medium  of  these  they  reach  the  lungs  of 
the  sheep.  When  the  former  reaches  the  extreme  end  of 
the  bronchial  tube  they  become  encysted.  In  the  cyst 
they  grow  to  adult  size.  Escaping  from  the  cyst,  they 
make  their  way  into  the  small  air  tubes,  mate  and  repro- 
duce. The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  surrounding  cavities.  The 
young  worms  hatched  from  these  make  their  way  into 
the  neighboring  air  chambers,  and  some  of  them  are 
caught  up  at  a  later  period.  These  may  aid  in  the  spread- 
ing of  the  disease.  The  thread  lung  worm  deposits  eggs 
in  the  surrounding  mucus  within  the  bronchial  tubes. 
Each  egg  contains  within  it  a  young  worm.  When  these 
are  hatched  many  of  them  are  expelled  through  coughing, 
and  these  in  turn  may  aid  in  spreading  the  disease.  The 
symptoms  are  more  pronounced  than  in  the  case  of  the 
hair  worms.  The  young  parasites  have  great  vitality. 
They  can  live  for  months  in  stagnant  water. 

The  preventive  measures  that  may  be  adopted  may 
not  always  be  effective  in  all  instances  in  staying  the 
progress  of  the  disease.  The  expulsion  of  the  parasites 
through  coughing  makes  it  difficult  to  keep  hitherto  un- 


4OO  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

affected  animals  free  from  attack.  The  presence  of  the 
worms  in  the  lambs  indicates  that  they  are  continually 
passing  through  indirectly  from  sheep  to  sheep.  Of 
course,  it  will  help  to  prevent  invasion  if  the  lambs  are 
kept  away  from  pastures  in  which  the  old  sheep  graze  and 
from  drinking  in  pools  of  water. 

For  the  hair  lung  worm  no  very  effective  treatment  has 
been  discovered.  For  the  thread  lung  worm  tracheal  in- 
jections have  been  found  partially  effective,  but  they 
should  be  administered  only  by  a  skilled  veterinarian. 
Fumigation  may  render  some  aid,  but  may  not  be  prac- 
ticable in  all  instances,  from  want  of  a  suitable  place  in 
which  to  fumigate.  At  the  best  it  cannot  be  said  that  it 
is  completely  effective.  It  should  be  done  in  a  building 
nearly  airtight.  Sulphur  burned  slowly  is  the  best  sub- 
stance for  such  fumigating.  The  treatment  should  be 
given  daily  for  a  week,  when  it  is  discontinued  for  two 
weeks,  and  repeated  again  daily  for  several  days.  The 
attendants  must  guard  against  suffocation,  which  they 
may  readily  do  by  watching  the  movements  of  the  sheep 
through  a  window.  The  worms  are  thus  benumbed  and 
in  the  coughing  that  follows  many  will  be  ejected. 

Nodular  disease  (Oesophagostoma  columbianum),  fre- 
quently called  nodule  disease,  is  characterized  by  tumors 
present  in  the  intestines.  It  is  caused  by  a  nematode  or 
round  worm,  which  is  usually  found  in  considerable  num- 
bers in  the  large  intestine.  It  may  also  be  found  in  the 
tumors  and  these  may  extend  the  entire  length  of  the 
intestine.  It  is  now  to  be  reckoned  with  in  many  flocks, 
but  to  a  greater  extent  probably  east  from  the  Mississippi 
River,  than  west  from  the  same.  It  is  the  source  of  very 
considerable  loss.  The  harm  resulting  is  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  the  parasites. 

The  indications  of  the  presence  of  nodular  disease  are 
not  greatly  different  from  those  that  indicate  the  pres- 
ence of  stomach  worms  (see  page  391).  These  include 
bloodless  lips,  dry  wool,  emaciation,  and,  in  the  more 


THE    MORE   COMMON    AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  40! 

severe  cases,  diarrhoea.  Nevertheless,  sheep  may  in  some 
instances  be  infected  in  a  considerable  degree  and  still  re- 
tain a  fair  degree  of  thrift,  but  usually  the  indications  of 
debility  are  present,  and  increasingly  so  as  time  advances. 
Unlike  the  stomach  worm  affection,  it  does  more  harm  to 
mature  sheep  than  to  lambs.  This  may  be  partly  the  out- 
come of  the  gradual  rate  of  the  infection  and  the  slow 
rate  of  development  within  the  tumors.  The  parasites 
affect  the  digestion  adversely. 

The  life  history  of  the  parasite  is  only  known  during 
the  period  of  its  development  in  the  intestiual  canal. 
When  the  eggs  escape,  as  doubtless  they  do,  in  the  ex- 
crement, they  in  some  way  reach  the  sheep,  probably 
in  the  food  or  water.  In  the  intestines  they  become  sur- 
rounded by  a  cyst  and  later  by  the  products  of  the  inflam- 
mation which  they  produce  in  the  surrounding  tissues. 
When  about  1-16  of  an  inch  long  they  break  from  the 
tumors  and  begin  life  in  the  intestine,  where  they  grow 
to  maturity. 

The  preventive  measures  are  about  the  same  as  for 
stomach  worms  (see  page  393).  Frequent  changing  of 
the  pastures,  the  avoidance  of  all  grazing  grounds  and  the 
breaking  up  of  the  same  are  greatly  important.  Nodular 
disease  is  most  in  evidence  in  the  early  spring  season. 
There  is  no  sure  remedy  for  the  disease. 

While  preventive  measures  should  receive  every  at- 
tention when  combating  internal  parasites,  and  while 
treatment  should  be  most  faithfully  and  persistently  ad- 
ministered where  it  is  probable  that  it  will  do  some  good, 
it  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  in  many  instances  it  would  be 
better  in  every  way  to  sell  the  entire  flock  and  begin 
again  with  other  sheep  after  an  interval  of  several 
months.  This  will  apply  in  many  instances  to  the  inva- 
sion of  flocks  by  stomach  worms,  tapeworms,  lung  worms 
and  the  worms  that  cause  nodular  disease.  One  season 
should  suffice  to  leave  the  farm  free  from  sheep,  that  the 
germs  may  perish.  When  restocking  the  farm  every  pre 


4O2  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

caution  should  be  taken  to  make  sure  that  the  sheep 
brought  in  are  healthy. 

Grub  in  the  head  (Oestrus  ovis)  is  sometimes  called 
nasal  catarrh.  The  trouble  resulting  is  caused  by  a  worm 
laid  by  a  species  of  the  gadfly  within  the  nostrils  of  sheep 
which  crawls  up  into  the  remotest  parts  of  the  upper  cav- 
ities of  the  nostril  adjacent  to  the  brain,  where  it  grows 
to  maturity,  and  in  instances  not  a  few  leads  to  the  death 
of  the  sheep.  This  result  usually  follows  from  the  in- 
flammation produced,  which  extends  more  or  less  to  ad- 
jacent portions  of  the  brain.  The  fly  which  lays  the  grub 
was  probably  brought  into  America  with  the  early  im- 
portations of  sheep.  It  is  widely  distributed.  It  is  more 
troublesome  in  the  mild  than  in  cold  latitudes,  owing 
doubtless  to  the  longer  period  congenial  to  its  develop- 
ment. But  as  far  north  as  the  southern  Canadian  boun- 
dary, in  some  instances,  the  losses  from  its  presence  are 
quite  serious.  Because  of  the  slow  development  of  the 
grub,  it  is  much  more  harmful  to  old  than  to  young 
sheep.  The  fly  which  lays  the  eggs  is  of  sluggish  habits, 
and  seldom  flies,  save  when  in  search  of  some  place  to 
deposit  its  young.  It  then  flies  swiftly  with  a  low  whir- 
ring sound.  It  is  considerably  larger  than  a  house  fly  and 
it  is  claimed  that  it  has  no  mouth,  its  only  instinct  appar- 
ently being  to  reproduce  its  kind.  The  young  are  de- 
posited, not  as  an  egg,  but  as  a  maggot  within  the  rim 
of  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep.  The  usual  time  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  fly  is  probably  June  and  July  in  the  northern 
states,  but  in  the  southern  states  it  is  doubtless  present  much 
longer,  as  there  the  grubs  may  be  found  in  the  nasal  cavi- 
ties during  all  the  year  and  in  various  stages  of  growth. 
The  sheep  are  much  agitated  when  the  fly  makes  its  at- 
tacks. In  some  instances  as  soon  as  a  fly  touches  the  nose 
of  a  sheep  it  shakes  its  head  and  strikes  the  ground  vio- 
lently with  the  forefeet.  Holding  the  nose  close  to  the 
ground,  the  sheep  run  away.  In  other  instances  they 
crowd  together  during  the  heat  of  the  day  with  the  nose 


THE    MORE   COMMON    AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  403 

in  proximity  to  the  ground.  It  is  only  in  the  spring  time 
when  the  larva  are  well  developed  that  they  cause  trouble. 
A  discharge  is  first  noticed,  which  when  it  first  appears  is 
clear  and  serous,  but  later  it  is  thick  and  mucous.  More 
or  less  sneezing  is  present,  and  this  is  accompanied  by  a 
discharge  of  mucus  and  in  some  instances  of  the  larvae. 
As  the  trouble  advances  they  frequently  turn  the  head 
backward  and  shake  it  and  they  rub  the  nose  against  the 
ground.  Still  later  they  lift  their  feet  high  when  walking 
and  go  with  lowered  head  accompanied  occasionally  by 
staggering.  In  some  instances  the  breathing  is  affected, 
owing  to  obstructions  which  arise  in  the  air  passages  by 
the  presence  of  the  worms,  or  of  the  resulting  inflamma- 
tion in  the  mucous  membrane.  Appetite  fails,  a  frothy 
substance  runs  from  the  nose,  they  grit  their  teeth,  con- 
vulsions follow  and  death  comes  usually  within  a  few 
days  of  the  appearance  of  the  symptoms.  In  many  in- 
stances the  animals  may  recover,  especially  in  the  absence 
of  the  later  symptoms  referred  to. 

The  life  history  is  in  outline  as  follows :  As  soon  as 
the  young  larva  are  deposited  they  begin  to  crawl  up- 
ward into  the  nostril.  When  mature  the  grubs  are  y^  of 
an  inch  long  and  about  1-3  of  an  inch  wide,  and  are  of  a 
dark  color.  When  mature  the  larva  escapes  from  the 
nostril,  falls  to  the  ground,  bores  a  hole  an  inch  or  two  in 
the  same,  and  in  20  to  60  days  emerges  as  a  fly.  The 
period  of  the  development  of  the  larva  is  about  10  months. 
In  young  lambs  only  young  larva  are  found.  The  great- 
est infection  is  found  in  sheep  two  years  and  over.  In 
ewes  the  sinuses  may  hold  even  more  than  four  or  five 
of  the  larva,  without  crowding,  and  males  can  hold  a 
number  considerably  larger. 

Preventive  measures,  though  they  involve  much 
labor,  are  all  important.  Because  of  the  labor  which  they 
involve,  they  can  be  best  resorted  to  in  the  case  of  small 
flocks  such  as  are  kept  on  the  ordinary  farm.  One  of 
these  is  the  smearing  of  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep  with 


404  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

some  offensive  substance  which  will  keep  the  flies  away. 
The  following  is  one  of  the  best  of  these:  Take  equal 
parts  of  tar  and  grease,  tar  and  fish  oil,  or  tar  and  whale 
oil  soap.  Mix  them  and  apply  with  a  brush.  This  appli- 
cation must  be  repeated  every  few  days,  as  it  soon  loses 
its  potency.  A  second  method  secures  some  strong 
scented  dip  and  applies  the  same  as  a  spray  on  the  sheep 
as  they  are  bunched.  Yet  another  preventive,  and  prob- 
ably the  best  that  can  be  resorted  to,  is  to  provide  the 
sheep  with  a  cool,  well-ventilated  and  darkened  resting 
place  in  which  they  may  remain  during  the  heat  of  the 
day  in  the  warm  season.  Then  it  is  that  the  fly  does  its 
mischievous  work. 

Treatment  for  grub  in  the  head  is  practically  out  of 
the  question.  In  some  rare  instances  a  skilled  veterinarian 
may  destroy  the  grubs  by  trephining,  but  in  more  in- 
stances failure  will  result.  The  cost  involved  in  the  case 
of  common  sheep  is  too  great  to  justify  resorting  to  this 
kind  of  treatment. 

Ailments  from  digestive  sources — The  ailments  from 
digestive  sources  are  many.  In  this  volume  it  would  be 
impossible  to  discuss  all  of  these.  Such  a  discussion  may 
properly  belong  to  a  work  on  the  diseases  of  sheep.  The 
following  only  will  be  discussed:  (i)  Bloat  and  its  treat- 
ment; (2)  overtaxed  digestion  and  its  treatment;  (3) 
diarrhea  and  the  treatment;  (4)  colic  and  the  treatment; 
and  (5)  stretches  and  the  treatment. 

Bloat,  sometimes  and  probably  more  frequently  called 
"hoven,"  may  result  from  any  abrupt  change  to  a  palata- 
ble diet,  especially  one  that  contains  much  moisture.  In 
this  country  it  is  usually  caused  by  eating  too  freely  of 
such  rations  as  rape,  clover  and  alfalfa,  especially  when 
these  are  quite  succulent.  The  danger  is  increased  when 
these  foods  are  wet  with  rain  or  dew,  or  are  in  a  more 
or  less  frozen  condition.  Feeding  upon  the  tops  of  imma- 
ture mangels  may  also  produce  bloat.  Fermentation  of 
the  food  in  the  rumen  is  the  immediate  cause  of  this  con- 


THE   MORE   COMMON    AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  405 

dition.  The  distension  resulting  may  so  press  upon  the 
lungs  that  the  animal  unless  speedily  relieved  may  die 
from  suffocation. 

This  trouble  may  be  prevented  by  not  allowing  the 
animals  to  feed  upon  such  foods  when  the  stomach  is 
empty.  When  admitting  them  to  these,  it  is  especially 
important  that  they  have  been  fed  some  palatable  food, 
and  preferably  a  dry  food,  before  admitting  them  to  such 
pastures.  When  they  have  become  accustomed  to  these 
the  danger  is  much  less,  but  it  is  not  entirely  obviated. 
It  is  always  materially  lessened  by  feeding  the  sheep  a 
small  grain  ration  in  the  early  morning.  This  is  espe- 
cially important  after  the  season  of  early  frosts  has 
arrived. 

The  treatment  that  most  speedily  and  most  surely 
brings  relief  results  from  the  use  of  the  trocar  and  can- 
ula.  The  former  is  used  in  puncturing  the  paunch  and  the 
latter  remaining  in  the  puncture  is  used  in  furnishing  a 
channel  for  the  escape  of  the  gas.  Puncture  with  a  knife 
is  hazardous.  It  may  bring  temporary  relief,  but  in  the 
puncture  thus  made  some  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach 
may  escape  and  lead  to  results  that  are  disastrous.  A 
mild  purgative  is  usually  in  order  after  the  bloating  has 
been  relieved.  In  the  absence  of  the  trocar  and  canula, 
relief  has  been  obtained  in  some  instances  by  inserting  a 
large  rope  of  suitable  size  in  the  mouth  in  the  form  of  a 
bit.  It  is  held  in  place  by  strings  tied  to  each  end  and 
again  at  the  summit  of  the  head.  This  treatment  aids  in 
the  escape  of  the  gas. 

Indigestion  may  result  from  a  great  variety  of  causes. 
Among  these  are  the  following:  Feeding  food  over- 
succulent  or  overdry,  in  an  improper  condition  or  ex- 
cessive in  quantity. 

The  symptoms  will  vary  with  the  cause.  Food  over- 
succulent  is  much  liable  to  lead  to  diarrhea ;  when  lacking 
in  succulence,  it  may  lead  to  impaction.  If  fed  in  an  im- 
proper condition,  as  when  moldy,  it  may  lead  to  serious 


406  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

derangement  of  the  whole  digestive  system  and  also  to 
other  ailments.  When  fed  excessive  in  quantity,  as  in  the 
form  of  strong  grains  fed  to  animals  that  are  being  fat- 
tened, it  leads  to  digestive  derangement  that  is  accompa- 
nied by  loss  of  appetite  that  may  be  partial  or  total,  pro- 
portionate to  the  degree  of  the  derangement. 

The  preventive  measures  in  all  those  instances  are 
very  clear.  Along  with  over-succulent  food,  some  less 
succulent  should  be  given.  To  illustrate:  When  sheep 
are  turned  in  on  to  a  succulent  crop  of  rape,  clover  or 
alfalfa,  they  should  also  have  access  to  a  grass  pasture 
in  which  the  grass  has  lost  much  of  its  succulence,  or  in 
its  room  to  a  good  quality  of  cured  alfalfa  or  clover  hay. 
The  sheep  will  partake  of  the  dry  food  under  such  con- 
ditions. When  the  fodder  is  woody  and  overdry,  as  it  is 
in  some  instances  in  winter,  the  aim  should  be  to  feed 
some  more  laxative  food  along  with  it,  as  field  roots, 
oilcake  or  silage.  Overfeeding  strong  grain  foods  may 
be  guarded  against  by  leading  up  to  full  feeding  grad- 
ually and  on  grains  less  strong,  and  by  watching  the 
appetite  of  the  sheep.  As  soon  as  any  symptoms  of  wan- 
ing appetite  are  noticed  the  amount  of  grain  that  is  being 
fed  should  be  lessened.  Should  the  appetite  be  absent  in 
a  marked  degree,  it  may  be  wise  to  withhold  the  grain 
food  entirely  for  a  time.  From  what  has  been  said  it  will 
be  apparent  that  the  place  for  treatment  for  indigestion 
is  not  a  large  one.  Mild  purgatives  may  be  helpful  in 
some  instances  in  removing  from  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines substances  that  may  be  irritating  in  their  nature.  For 
such  use  the  following  purgatives  will  be  found  quite 
suitable,  viz.,  four  ounces  of  epsom  salts  given  in  water 
or  three  to  four  ounces  of  castor  oil. 

Diarrhea  and  treatment — Diarrhea  may  be  simple  or 
parasitic.  It  is  simple  when  it  results  from  some  change 
in  the  diet  that  disturbs  the  normal  digestive  processes. 
It  is  the  effort  of  nature  to  remove  irritant  matters  in  the 
stomach  and  alimentary  canal,  when  these  are  present.  It 


THE   MORE   COMMON   AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  407 

is  parasitic  when  it  results  from  the  presence  of  such  para- 
sites as  stomach  worms  and  tapeworms  in  the  digestive 
tract.  In  such  instances  the  cure  is  found  first  or  mainly 
in  the  removal  of  the  cause.  The  treatment  for  stomach 
worms  is  discussed  on  page  394,  and  for  tapeworms  on 
page  397.  In  the  present  instance,  therefore,  the  discus- 
sion is  narrowed  down  to  the  methods  that  will  best  tend 
to  combat  the  evils  resulting  from  the  simple  form  of 
diarrhea.  As  will  be  shown,  the  treatment  for  simple 
diarrhea  is  much  less  complex  than  for  parasitic  diar- 
rhea. The  symptoms  of  simple  diarrhea  are  frequent  ex- 
pulsion of  the  feces,  and  more  or  less  watery  in  character. 
They  are  free  from  blood  and  slime,  and  are  not  usually 
of  seriously  offensive  odor.  The  appetite  is  sharper  in 
most  instances  than  in  the  absence  of  the  trouble.  The 
symptoms  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  those  which  in- 
dicate the  presence  of  dysentery.  In  the  latter,  to  which 
diarrhea  unchecked  may  lead,  fever  is  present,  the  debil- 
ity is  rapid  and  extreme  and  the  bowels  rumble.  The 
feces  are  thin  but  adhesive,  are  laden  with  mucus  and  are 
passed  with  pain.  Such  attacks  are  usually  more  or  less 
fatal,  and  when  the  disease  becomes  thus  serious  it  is  best 
dealt  with  by  a  competent  veterinarian.  The  causes  of 
diarrhea  may  be  various.  The  most  common  cause  is  the 
partaking  too  freely  of  over-succulent  food,  as  when  sheep 
are  turned  out  to  graze  upon  succulent  young  grasses  in 
the  spring  or  into  a  field  of  succulent  food  such  as  rape. 
Frozen  rape  or  frozen  clover  are  aggravating  causes.  The 
trouble,  however,  may  also  arise  from  feeding  indigestible 
food,  from  certain  changes  of  diet  suddenly  made  and 
from  exposure  when  in  an  emaciated  condition. 

Diarrhea  may  in  nearly  all  instances  be  prevented  by 
careful  and  thoughtful  management.  When  changes  of 
diet  are  made,  they  should  be  gradual  rather  than  sudden. 
When  the  animals  are  turned  on  to  a  very  succulent  diet, 
the  change  being  made  from  one  that  is  dry,  the  aim 
should  be  to  have  them  partake  of  some  dry  food  in  the 


408  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

early  part  of  the  day  for  several  days  before  they  par- 
take solely  of  the  succulent  food.  When  the  trouble 
conies  from  feeding  the  sheep  indigestible  foods  or  those 
not  easily  digested,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  aim  should 
be  to  change  the  diet,  for  no  good  can  result  from  feed- 
ing foods  that  irritate  the  digestive  organs.  When  the 
trouble  is  the  outcome  of  exposure,  it  might  have  been 
prevented  by  shielding  the  sheep  from  exposure,  and  such 
shielding  is  usually  within  the  power  of  the  prudent 
flockmaster.  When  the  trouble  results  from  partaking  of 
food  unduly  succulent,  the  feeding  of  dry  fodder  or  grain 
and  giving  the  sheep  access  to  a  plentiful  supply  of  salt 
will  be  found  helpful,  if  not,  indeed,  entirely  efficacious. 
Since  the  presence  of  simple  diarrhea  in  its  early  stages 
of  development  is  simply  an  effort  of  nature  to  get  rid  of 
irritant  substances,  it  is  well  not  to  be  too  hasty  in  check- 
ing it.  But  when  prolonged,  the  following  remedy  may 
be  helpful,  viz.,  three  to  five  ounces  of  castor  oil  for  a 
mature  sheep.  Follow  in  due  time  with  tincture  of  opium 
one  dram,  powdered  ginger  one  dram,  and  prepared 
chalk  12  drams.  Rations  dry  in  character  should  also 
be  fed,  and  with  due  caution. 

Colic  and  treatment — Colic  in  sheep  arises  from 
digestive  disturbances  resulting  from  the  feeding  of  un- 
suitable foods.  Though  closely  allied  to  the  disease 
known  as  stretches,  it  differs  from  the  latter  in  some  of 
the  essential  symptoms.  The  leading  indications  of  colic 
include  moaning,  grinding  the  teeth,  frequent  getting  up 
and  lying  down  and  striking  the  belly  with  the  hind  feet. 
Lambs  show  these  symptoms  much  more  frequently  than 
adults  as  the  result  of  errors  in  dieting,  whereas  in 
stretches  the  animal  frequently  lays  down  and  stretches 
out  at  full  length. 

Colic  is  caused  from  digestive  disturbance,  the  out- 
come of  feeding  unsuitable  food.  These  include  such  ra- 
tions as  frozen  rape  and  clover.  Unless  soon  relieved  the 


THE    MORE    COMMON    AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  409 

affected  parts  may  become  inflamed  and  the  animal  may 
die. 

The  preventive  measures  are  all  important.  They  in- 
clude the  feeding  of  dry  and  succulent  foods  in  due  bal- 
ance, and  avoiding  the  feeding  of  the  same  when  injured 
by  frost.  When  it  occurs  in  lambs,  the  milk  of  a  cow  or 
of  a  foster  mother,  which  is  frequently  the  aggravating 
cause,  may  be  improved  by  adding  limewater  to  make  it 
conform  more  nearly  to  the  constituents  natural  to  the 
young  lamb. 

For  treatment  such  mild  remedies  as  ginger,  pepper- 
mint and  warm  gruel  may  suffice.  In  other  instances  a 
cathartic  may  be  necessary.  A  popular  remedy  consists 
of  one  dram  of  laudanum  and  one  of  powdered  ginger 
for  a  mature  sheep,  administered  in  flaxseed  tea. 

Stretches  and  treatment — When  sheep  are  main- 
tained for  a  long  period  on  heavy  and  dry  rations  the 
trouble  popularly  known  as  "stretches'*  is  very  liable  to 
occur,  more  especially  when  constipation  has  been  pres- 
ent for  a  considerable  period.  The  indications  of 
stretches  include  the  sudden  lying  down  of  the  sheep 
and  stretching  out  at  full  length.  It  is  rarely  met 
with  in  a  flock  in  which  suitable  food  has  been 
provided.  Clearly,  it  is  the  outcome  of  unsuitable 
dieting,  resulting  in  impaction.  It  is  rarely  met  with  in 
a  flock  to  which  roots  are  freely  fed.  The  cause  being 
known,  the  preventive  measures  are  easy.  They  include 
the  feeding  of  such  foods  as  will  ward  off  constipation. 
These'  include  field  roots,  oilcake  and  some  such  food  as 
corn  ensilage,  although  the  latter  is  not  equal  to  field 
roots  in  warding  off  the  disease. 

For  treatment,  melted  lard  has  been  recommended. 
The  dose  for  an  adult  sheep  is  about  one-quarter  of  a 
pound.  When  administering  the  lard  a  drenching  bottle 
or  a  tablespoon  may  be  used.  For  lambs  the  following 
has  been  found  very  helpful :  Four  ounces  of  epsom  salts, 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  molasses  and  a  heaping  teaspoonful 


4-IO  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

of  ground  ginger.  The  ginger  should  be  dissolved  in  half 
a  pint  of  water. 

Ailments  affecting  the  organs  of  respiration — In  the 
discussion  that  follows  the  subjects  discussed  will  in- 
clude :  (i)  Catarrh  and  the  treatment ;  (2)  pneumonia  and 
the  treatment;  and  (3)  pleurisy  and  the  treatment.  These 
are,  of  course,  only  some  of  the  more  common  ailments  of 
this  class. 

Catarrh  is  of  three  forms.  The  most  common  form 
is  that  known  as  nasal  catarrh.  A  second  form  has  been 
designated  epizootic  catarrh,  and  a  third  form  as  parasitic 
catarrh.  The  second  form  is  closely  allied  to  the  first. 
The  third  form  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  such  para- 
sites as  the  larvae  of  Oestrus  ovis,  grub  in  the  head. 

Nasal  catarrh  is  accompanied  by  frequent  sneezing, 
discharge  from  the  nose,  labored  breathing  and  loss  of 
appetite.  The  indications  of  fever  may  not  be  markedly 
present.  The  ailment,  in  common  phrase,  has  been  called 
snuffles.  When  neglected  in  winter,  it  sometimes  affects 
simultaneously  the  greater  part  of  the  flock,  and  it  may 
remain  until  warm  weather.  The  impression  that  it  is 
contagious  is  probably  not  quite  correct.  In  rare  instances 
it  may  prove  fatal  by  the  inflammation  extending  down 
the  air  passages,  but  these  are  not  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Nasal  catarrh  is  the  outcome  of  exposure,  as,  for  in- 
stance, to  cold  autumn  rains  or  to  drafts  where  the  sheep 
are  taking  rest,  especially  in  the  night  season.  It  may 
also  arise  from  some  other  causes. 

The  preventive  measures,  of  course,  are  such  as  will 
ward  off  the  causes  that  produce  the  disease.  Special 
pains  should  be  taken  to  guard  against  autumn  storms, 
and  especially  cold  rain  storms,  which  in  many  instances 
give  rise  to  this  trouble,  and  also  to  guard  against  the 
possibility  of  harmful  drafts  when  providing  places  of 
shelter. 

The  best  treatment  is  to  build  up  the  system  through 
the  medium  of  suitable  and  specially  nourishing  food. 


THE   MORE   COMMON   AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  41 1 

Specific  treatment  can  be  given  that  will  compare  with 
liberal  feeding  in  warding  off  and  removing  the  ill  effects 
of  the  disease. 

Bronchitis  may  be  simple  or  parasitical.  It  is  simple 
when  it  results  from  undue  exposure,  as  to  inclement 
weather  or  to  drafts  such  as  produce  effects  more  deep 
seated  than  catarrhal  troubles.  It  is  parasitical  when  it  is 
the  outcome  of  the  presence  of  some  parasites  in  the  bron- 
chial tubes,  as  for  instance  the  thread  lung  worm,  which 
has  already  been  discussed  (see  page  399). 

The  indications  of  bronchitis  in  lambs  are  a  moist 
and  wheezing  cough,  more  or  less  fever  and  increased 
rapidity  of  breathing.  The  coughing  is  in  most  instances 
severe  and  prolonged. 

Treatment  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term  will  be 
of  comparatively  little  avail.  Preventive  measures  are 
vastly  more  efficacious.  These  are  such  as  pertain  to  the 
protection  of  sheep  from  storms,  especially  rainstorms, 
and  from  drafts  such  as  produce  catarrh.  This,  how- 
ever, does  not  exclude  the  use  of  laxatives  and  of  certain 
stimulant  tonics.  But  the  most  efficacious  measures  that 
can  be  adopted  are  such  as  relate  to  good  nursing,  which 
means  providing  good  sanitary  conditions  and  a  nourish- 
ing diet. 

Simple  pneumonia  is  more  deeply  seated  than  catarrh 
or  bronchitis.  It  is  a  disease  of  the  lungs  in  which  the 
inflammation  works  rapidly,  if  left  unchecked.  Because 
of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  disease  does  its  work,  it 
has  been  termed,  in  common  phrase,  "rot  of  the  lights." 

The  indications  of  pneumonia  are  various.  It  com- 
mences with  frequent  and  troublesome  coughing.  There 
is  also  present  an  unwillingness  to  move,  heaving  of  the 
flank  and  signs  of  labored  breathing.  As  the  disease  in- 
creases the  symptoms  become  intensified.  Finally,  the 
animals  stagger  and  succumb  unless  relief  is  furnished, 
which  occurs  but  seldom,  as  the  disease  is  usually  quite 
fatal. 


412  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

This  trouble  is  the  outcome  of  exposure.  Very  fre- 
quently it  assumes  the  form  of  acute  congestion.  It  may 
come  from  chills  after  unduly  rapid  driving,  or  from  want 
of  sufficient  protection  after  washing  or  early  shearing. 
In  America  it  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  the  most 
common  cause  is  exposure  to  cold  rains  in  the  autumn, 
winter  or  spring,  and  especially  autumn  rains,  which  may 
fall  unexpectedly,  and  may  be  quickly  followed  by 
weather  severely  cold.  Sheep  with  long  and  open  fleeces, 
and  especially  those  with  fleeces  that  part,  as  it  were, 
along  the  line  of  the  back  are  the  most  liable  to  suffer 
from  such  visitation.  Preventive  measures  with  this  dis- 
ease, as  well  as  nasal  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  are  all  im- 
portant. The  shepherd  who  is  duly  alert  does  not  need 
to  pay  much  attention  to  the  treatment  of  these  diseases, 
for  he  will  seldom  have  them  in  his  flock. 

The  preventive  measures  for  pneumonia  are  about 
the  same  as  for  catarrh  and  bronchitis  (see  page  410). 
The  treatment  is  also  about  the  same ;  but  in  the  case  of 
pneumonia  treatment  is  usually  of  but  little  avail,  owing 
to  the  rapidity  with  which  the  disease  puts  in  its  deadly 
work. 

Pleurisy,  which  affects  the  lining  that  incloses  the 
lungs  rather  than  the  lungs  themselves,  sometimes  oc- 
curs, but  not  so  frequently  as  pneumonia.  In  some  in- 
stances the  two  diseases  are  operative  at  the  same  time. 
The  symptoms  of  pleurisy  are  not  greatly  different,  to  the 
general  observer,  from  those  that  pertain  to  pneumonia, 
but  the  breathing  is  less  labored.  The  causes  are  meas- 
urably virtually  the  same  and  also  the  preventive  meas- 
ures and  treatment. 

Ailments  arising  from  reproduction — These  include : 
(i)  Abortion  and  the  treatment;  (2)  retention  of  the 
afterbirth  and  treatment;  and  (3)  inversion  of  the  womb 
and  treatment.  These  troubles  may  occur  even  in  flocks 
that  are  well  managed. 


THE    MORE   COMMON    AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  413 

Abortion  in  ewes  is  much  less  frequent  than  in  cows. 
It  seldom  becomes  epizootic,  but  it  is  claimed  that  in 
some  instances  it  does  assume  a  highly  contagious  form. 

When  a  pregnant  ewe  isolates  herself  from  the  flock, 
and  when  such  isolation  is  accompanied  by  occasional  or 
frequent  bleating,  the  evidence  is  present  that  she  is 
likely  to  abort  or  that  she  is  carrying  a  dead  lamb. 

The  causes  that  lead  to  abortion  are  various.  It  may 
result  from  :  ( i )  Improper  feeding,  as  the  feeding  of  fodders 
or  grains  that  contain  molds ;  from  feeding  frosted  roots 
or  roots  in  excess ;  or  from  feeding  mangels  not  fully 
ripened.  (2)  From  rough  treatment,  as  crowding  the 
ewes  through  narrow  doorways,  or  turning  them  on  their 
buttocks  to  dress  their  feet.  (3)  From  fright,  as  chasing 
by  dogs,  or  from  overdriving.  (4)  From  hoven,  or  as  the 
outcome  of  other  ailments.  (5)  From  infection. 

The  preventive  measures  are  those  which  will  ward 
off  the  various  causes  mentioned.  As  a  safeguard  against 
contagious  abortion  the  rule  is  a  good  one  which  buries 
the  ejected  foetus  and  the  contaminated  litter. 

The  medicinal  treatment  consists  in  injecting  some 
antiseptic,  as  a  1.5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  into 
the  genital  organ  and  strengthening  the  animals  by  ad- 
ministering to  them  mild  tonics. 

Retention  of  the  afterbirth  is  not  infrequent  with 
ewes  where  complications  have  been  present  during  par- 
turition. If  not  removed  within  a  reasonable  time,  it  may 
only  come  away  by  slow  degrees  as  the  mass  decays.  The 
odor  thus  engendered  is  very  offensive.  The  affected  ani- 
mal will  not  thrive  as  it  should,  and  fatal  complications 
may  follow  as  the  outcome  of  blood  poisoning.  The 
trouble  will  not  usually  occur  with  strong  and  vigorous 
animals,  but  with  those  that  are  feeble  from  lack  of  food, 
or  other  causes  the  instances  are  not  infrequent. 

Some  shepherds  attach  a  weight  to  the  protruding 
mass  which  removes  it  by  degrees.  It  may  be  removed 
by  working  the  hand,  if  quite  small,  into  the  vagina,  and 


414  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

gradually  working  the  attachments  loose.  An  antiseptic, 
as  15  per  cent  carbolic  acid,  may  then  be  syringed  into 
the  womb. 

Inversion  of  the  womb,  sometimes  spoken  of  as  los- 
ing the  lamb  bed,  sometimes  occurs.  When  it  does  it 
ought  to  be  replaced  at  the  earliest  moment  possible,  or 
the  effect  upon  the  ewe  will  soon  prove  disastrous. 

The  trouble  may  result :  (i)  From  severe  labor  pains ; 
(2)  from  excessive  spasm  of  the  uterus ;  or  (3)  from  vio- 
lence in  the  artificial  extraction  of  the  lamb. 

Before  replacing  the  expelled  part  it  should  be 
cleansed  from  all  foreign  matters  and  fetal  membranes. 
Replacement  will  be  aided  by  laying  the  sheep  on  its 
back  and  stretching  the  hind  parts.  The  organ  may  be 
held  in  place  by  the  aid  of  a  truss  for  a  time.  This  is  held 
in  place  by  a  strap  that  goes  around  the  buttock  and  fas- 
tens at  either  end  to  a  suitable  surcingle  put  around  the 
body  just  behind  the  forelegs.  A  small  strap  which  goes 
over  the  top  of  the  hips  is  also  attached  to  these  side 
straps.  A  ewe  that  has  been  thus  affected  should  not  be 
retained  for  future  breeding. 

Ailments  that  affect  the  limbs — While  these  are  not 
numerous,  some  of  them  give  very  much  trouble,  as,  for 
instance,  foot  rot.  The  only  troubles  that  affect  the  limbs 
that  can  be  discussed  in  this  work  are:  (i)  Common  foot 
rot;  (2)  contagious  foot  rot;  and  (3)  broken  limbs. 

Common  foot  rot  sometimes  called  simple  foot  rot,  is 
more  frequent  and  more  virulent  in  areas  where  the  pas- 
ture lands  are  moist  to  wet  and  where  the  weather  also  is 
normally  moist.  In  western  Europe  it  is  much  more  prev- 
alent than  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  begins 
by  lameness,  generally  in  one  of  the  forefeet.  At  the  first 
the  skin  is  slightly  reddened  and  then  covered  with  gran- 
ulated matter  or  small  warty  growths.  It  usually  pro- 
ceeds downward  on  the  inner  side  of  one  claw.  The 
whole  foot  is  hot  and  tender  and  the  coronet  swollen. 
The  horn  of  the  hoof  becomes  soft,  with  evidence  of  de- 


THE    MORE    COMMON    AILMENTS  OF    SHEEP  415 

cay,  followed  by  more  or  less  of  piecemeal  detachment 
and  accompanied  by  a  very  offensive  smell.  The  crumb- 
ling may  eventually  leave  the  lower  part  of  the  foot  com- 
pletely exposed,  but  in  the  less  acute  cases  the  hoof, 
though  not  shed,  becomes  much  enlarged  and  ridgy. 
When  the  sensitive  parts  are  exposed,  they  sprout  in  the 
form  of  fungous  masses.  Ulcers  follow,  more  or  less,  and 
maggots  may  increase  the  disintegration.  The  trouble 
unchecked  will  probably  extend  to  other  feet,  but  seldom 
to  all  of  them  at  once.  In  time  the  affected  animals  come 
to  feed  on  their  knees  when  the  forefeet  are  affected  and 
draw  themselves  on  their  bellies  when  the  hind  feet  are 
affected. 

The  causes  that  lead  to  foot  rot  include  the  follow- 
ing: (i)  Overmoisture  in  pastures  on  soil  so  soft  as  to 
encourage  too  much  the  growth  of  spongy  hoofs;  (2) 
animals  standing  too  much  in  their  own  excrement  when 
soft  and  wet;  (3)  overmuch  grit  on  sandy  chalk  or  clay 
soils;  (4)  excessive  paring  of  the  hoof  may  encourage 
the  trouble;  (5)  punctures  with  stones,  thorns  or  nails 
and  bruises  may  lead  to  it. 

Preventive  measures  consist  in  what  may  be  termed 
good  sanitation  and  the  intelligent  and  watchful  care  of 
the  flock.  This  includes  judicious  feeding,  careful  and 
timely  trimming  of  the  feet  and  prompt  remedial  meas- 
ures when  the  disease  appears,  with  a  change  of  quarters 
to  prevent  its  further  spread. 

The  treatment  is  twofold.  It  consists,  first,  in  re- 
moving all  diseased  matter  by  paring  and  washing,  and 
second  applying  some  suitable  form  of  dressing.  Rey- 
nolds gives  the  following: 

"Clean  thoroughly  between  the  toes;  pare  away  all 
diseased  bone  and  remove  the  loosened  pieces.  The  hoof, 
if  grown  out  of  shape,  must  be  trimmed  to  normal  pro- 
portion. Excessive  granulations  must  be  cut  away  or 
removed  by  actual  cautery,  and  be  repressed  by  astring- 
ent measures  or  pressure  bandages.  Pledgets  of  tow  may 


4l6  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

be  dipped  in  tar  and  applied  over  the  granulations,  so  as 
to  bring  pressure  at  the  right  point.  The  patients  should 
be  kept  upon  clean  dry  footing  and  serious  cases  should 
be  taken  up  and  kept  in  the  yard  or  in  dry  stables.  For 
astringent  dressing  tincture  of  iron  is  suitable,  varying 
from  full  strength  to  I  to  4  dissolved  in  water.  Four  per 
cent  carbolized  tar  makes  a  nice  application  for  cleansing 
and  disinfecting  and  keeps  out  dirt.  The  medical  treat- 
ment, particularly  the  astringent,  should  be  very  carefully 
applied,  especially  into  the  crevices  and  deeper  recesses. 
It  is  frequently  advisable  to  treat  the  whole  flock  in  a 
general  way ;  in  that  case  the  flock  may  be  driven  through 
a  large  pan  containing  solution  of  copper  sulphate  about 
4  inches  deep.  The  animals  should  be  forced  to  remain  in 
the  pan  for  several  minutes,  so  as  to  insure  good  treat- 
ment. The  solution  should  be  made  up  dissolved  in  water 
in  the  proportion  of  one  to  two  pounds  per  gallon  of 
water. 

Contagious  foot  rot  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  com- 
mon or  simple  foot  rot.  It  begins  with  a  redness  of  skin 
about  the  coronet.  Then  follows,  in  the  order  named, 
vesiculation,  scab  and  desiccation.  The  hoofs  then  tend 
to  separate  from  the  sensitive  parts  which  they  cover.  It 
usually  breaks  out  on  all  the  feet  at  once  and  fever  runs 
high. 

The  disease  comes  through  contact.  It  may  come 
through  pastures,  corrals,  transporting  ships  or  cars,  and 
through  the  medium  of  fairs.  It  runs  a  course  of  sev- 
eral weeks.  Preventive  measures  are  very  important. 
They  include:  (i)  Keeping  the  sheep  and  their  feet  in 
good  condition;  (2)  quarantining  diseased  animals;  and 
(3)  disinfecting  affected  quarters.  The  treatment  is  in 
many  respects  similar  to  that  given  for  common  foot 
rot  (see  page  415).  Removing  the  diseased  parts  by  par- 
ing is  first  in  order.  Then  follows  a  caustive  dressing, 
preferably  applied  by  pouring  or  dropping,  as  a  brush  or 
a  feather  soon  becomes  tainted  with  the  virus.  Tincture 


THE    MORE   COMMON    AILMENTS  OF   SHEEP  417 

of  iron  will  furnish  these  dressings.  Later  a  coating  of 
tar  will  give  protection.  Large  numbers  may  be  treated 
by  driving  them  through  a  trough  containing  a  solution 
of  carbolic  acid,  one  part  to  20  to  30  parts  of  soap  and 
water  according  to  the  severity  of  the  disease. 

Broken  limbs  must  be  dealt  with  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  break.  In  the  absence  of  a  skilled  veterina- 
rian the  aim  should  be  to  put  the  broken  limb  in  place : 
then  put  wet  cardboard  around,  and  hold  this  in  place  by 
wrapping  with  a  strong  bandage.  Splints  may  sometimes 
answer  the  purpose  better  than  cardboard. 

Ailments  peculiar  to  lambs — The  ailments  peculiar 
to  lambs  include:  (i)  Indigestion;  (2)  white  scours;  (3) 
retention  of  excrement;  (4)  wool  balls  in  the  stomach; 
and  (5)  navel  disease.  These  ills  and  the  treatment  for 
each  will  now  be  discussed  in  due  order. 

Indigestion  in  lambs  may  result  from  the  food  fur- 
nished to  the  dams  through  the  influence  which  it  exerts 
on  the  digestion  of  the  lamb.  It  may  take  the  form  of 
constipation,  as  when  the  supply  of  the  milk  is  meager 
and  furnished  from  foods  low  in  nutrition  and  lacking  in 
succulence ;  or  it  may  take  the  form  of  diarrhea  from  the 
feeding  of  foods  excessive  in  quantity  and  richness. 
When  a  lamb  previously  thrifty  shows  indications  of 
dumpishness,  the  presence  of  constipation  is  to  be  sus- 
pected. The  remedy  is  mild  doses  of  castor  oil,  or  what 
is  preferable,  an  injection  of  soapy  water.  A  moderate 
ration  of  field  roots  or  of  oilcake  fed  to  the  dam  would 
probably  prevent  such  a  condition,  at  least  in  very  many 
instances. 

Scours  in  young  lambs  are  the  outcome  of  milk  unsuit- 
able or  excessive  or  of  germ  infection.  The  result  is  pro- 
fuse white-colored  evacuations.  It  seldom  takes  the  epi- 
demic form,  but  many  instances  may  occur  simultane- 
ously and  from  the  same  cause ;  that  is  from  the  excessive 
quantity  of  the  rich  milk  furnished.  When  indications  of 
scours  appear,  the  diet  of  the  dams  should  be  reduced  and 


4l8  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

a  portion  of  the  milk  taken  from  the  dams  of  the  lambs 
that  are  thus  affected,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  not  be 
able  to  take  food  to  excess.  A  form  of  scours  may  occur 
at  a  later  period  in  which  the  evacuations  have  a  greenish 
tint.  It  is  more  fatal  than  the  former.  It  is  produced  by 
some  unsuitable  elements  in  the  diet. 

Retention  of  excrement  is  one  outcome  of  indigestion 
in  young  lambs.  It  results  from  some  peculiarities  in  the 
milk  which  are  the  outcome  of  certain  foods  fed  to  the 
dams.  The  excrement  may  accumulate  to  such  an  extent 
about  and  underneath  the  tail  head  as  to  close  the  pass- 
ages so  that  evacuation  ceases.  The  remedy  is  to  remove 
the  adherent  matter  mechanically.  When  thus  removed 
the  digestion  usually  regulates  itself  within  the  next  few 
days. 

Wool  balls  are  accumulations  of  wool  in  the  stomach. 
The  wool  is  taken  into  the  stomach  in  some  instances 
while  the  lambs  are  taking  food  from  the  dams,  and  in 
other  instances  as  the  result  of  biting  because  of  the  pres- 
ence of  ticks.  It  may  result,  as  it  does  in  the  case  of  old 
sheep,  as  the  outcome  of  a  depraved  appetite  resulting 
from  errors  of  diet.  The  trouble  may  be  prevented  when 
it  arises  from  the  first  cause  by  clipping  away  all  loose 
locks  of  wool  that  may  adhere  to  the  udder  before  the 
lambs  begin  to  nurse.  When  thus  affected,  the  lambs  are 
dull  and  stupid  and  refuse  their  food.  A  suitable  purga- 
tive may  relieve  the  trouble. 

Navel  disease,  more  frequently  spoken  of  as  navel 
ill,  is  an  affection  which  produces  swelling  and  soreness 
in  the  umbilical  cord  of  lambs  soon  after  birth.  It  is  the 
outcome  of  contact  with  filth  in  the  sheds.  An  applica- 
tion of  tincture  of  iodine  promptly  applied  will  usually 
prove  effective  in  destroying  the  germs. 

Ailments  miscellaneous  in  character — The  discussion 
of  these  will  include:  (i)  Goiter;  (2)  ophthalmia;  (3) 
tumors;  (4)  urinary  troubles;  and  (5)  garget.  The  treat- 
ment will  be  included. 


THE   MORE   COMMON"  AILMENTS  OF  SHEEP  419 

Goiter  is  an  affection  of  the  thyroid  glands  which 
causes  them  to  swell  so  as  to  form  lumplike  substances 
in  the  throat.  It  affects  both  lambs  and  older  sheep,  but 
more  especially  the  latter,  and  it  is  the  most  harmful 
to  them  when  they  are  newly  born.  The  lumps  are  in 
some  instances  small  and  hard ;  in  others  they  are  large 
and  soft.  In  many  instances  the  newly  born  lambs  thus 
affected  will  soon  die;  at  other  times  the  trouble  leaves 
them.  The  cause  of  this  trouble,  which  frequently  leads 
to  serious  loss,  is  not  well  understood.  It  occurs  in  sheep 
of  varying  degrees  of  thrift,  but  to  a  greater  extent  prob- 
ably in  those  more  or  less  pampered  than  when  kept  in 
the  ordinary  way.  It  would  seem  probable  from  the  be- 
havior of  sheep  grazed  on  soil  which  contains  much  lime, 
and  which  at  the  same  time  drink  water  considerably  im- 
pregnated with  lime  and  magnesia,  that  these  conditions 
favor  the  increase  of  goiter.  However  it  may  originate 
primarily,  it  would  seem  to  be,  in  a  sense,  constitutional 
and  therefore  transmissible.  Such  being  the  case,  goi- 
tered  dams,  or  dams  which  have  produced  goitered  lambs, 
should  not  be  retained  for  breeding.  Applications  of 
tincture  of  iodine  once  a  day  may  give  some  relief;  also 
iodide  of  potassium  given  in  doses  of  say  5  grains  for  a 
lamb  at  certain  intervals. 

Ophthalmia,  better  known  as  Conjunctivitis,  is  an 
affection  of  the  eyes  of  sheep  which,  unchecked,  may  lead 
to  blindness.  An  inflamed  condition  is  always  present. 
Simple  ophthalmia  is  a  frequent  complication  of  ordinary 
nasal  catarrh.  Other  exciting  causes  include  exposure 
to  cold  winds  and  drafts.  It  is  not  infectious,  though 
many  cases  may  occur  in  a  flock  simultaneously,  having 
originated  from  the  same  cause.  A  zinc  lotion,  prepared 
by  a  druggist  as  for  treating  sore  eyes  in  an  individual, 
dropped  into  the  eye  once  or  more  frequently,  should 
effect  a  cure. 

Tumors  may  affect  various  organs  of  sheep.  Very 
commonly  they  occur  at  or  within  the  anus.  Their  pres- 


42O  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ence  is  indicated  by  blood  in  the  feces  and  also  by  disin- 
clination to  move  the  hind  legs.  Laxative  diets  are  con- 
sidered helpful.  When  they  occur  on  the  neck  they 
should  be  lanced  when  ripe  and  washed  out  with  a  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid.  Animals  thus  affected  should  sel- 
dom be  retained. 

Urinary  troubles  are  various  and  may  affect  both 
males  and  females  in  certain  instances.  One  of  the  most 
common  forms,  however,  affects  males  only,  as  when 
mangels  are  freely  fed  to  them.  The  immediate  cause  is 
the  forming  of  crystals  at  the  mouth  of  the  bladder.  The 
indications  of  the  trouble  are  retarded  or  accelerated 
breathing,  swollen  sheath,  loss  of  appetite,  retention  of 
urine,  and  the  evidence  of  much  pain.  Treatment  in  such 
instances  is  of  but  little  avail,  but  prevention  is  easy;  that 
is,  by  not  feeding  mangels. 

Garget  or  mammitis  is  quite  common  in  flocks  that  are 
not  carefully  watched  and  cared  for  at  the  lambing  sea- 
son, and  also  at  the  time  of  weaning.  It  is  sometimes 
called  caked  udder,  since  the  inflammation  present  results 
in  a  hardening  of  the  parts  affected.  It  may  result  from 
various  causes,  including:  (i)  Inattention  at  time  of 
weaning,  or  when  one  twin  lamb  has  been  removed  dur- 
ing the  nursing  period;  (2)  exposure  to  wet  and  cold, 
as  when  the  sheep  are  left  in  the  pastures;  (3)  lying  on 
moist  filth  in  the  sleeping  places;  (4)  bruises  from  the 
lambs  sucking;  and  (5)  through  germ  infection. 

From  what  has  been  said  about  the  causes  that  lead 
to  this  trouble,  the  preventive  measures  will  be  apparent. 
The  treatment  should  begin  with  bathing  the  udder  with 
warm  water.  This  may  be  followed  by  applying  an  un- 
guent after  the  inflamed  part  has  been  rubbed  dry.  The 
unguent  may  be  composed  of  turpentine  and  lard,  about 
the  consistency  of  cream.  It  may  be  employed  with  ad- 
vantage as  frequently  as  three  times  daily.  Ewes  that 
have  been  troubled  thus  should  not  be  retained  for  breed- 
ing. 


CHAPTER  XX 
DIPPING  SHEEP  FOR  TICKS  AND  SCAB 

This  chapter  discusses  the  following  phases  in  regard 
to  dipping:  (i)  The  objects  sought  from  dipping;  (2) 
The  two  classes  of  sheep  dips ;  (3)  The  basic  element  in 
sheep  dips;  (4)  The  dipping  plant ;  (5)  The  reason  for 
dipping;  (6)  Facts  that  bear  upon  the  work  of  dipping; 
(7)  Care  of  the  animals  subsequently  to  dipping;  (8)  Re- 
moving parasites  by  other  methods;  and  (9)  How  far 
dipping  is  a  necessity. 

The  objects  sought  from  dipping — These  are  three: 
(i)  The  removal  of  external  parasites;  (2)  the  improving 
of  the  condition  of  the  skin  ;  and  (3)  increasing  growth  in 
the  wool.  The  first  of  these  objects  is  the  most  important 
by  far. 

Prominent  among  the  external  parasites  which  dip- 
ping aims  to  remove  are  sheep  ticks  and  the  mites  that 
produce  sheep  scab.  The  rate  of  increase  in  both  is  very 
rapid.  Gerlach  has  estimated  that  the  possible  increase 
of  the  mites  in  sheep  scab  in  90  days  is  1,000,000  females 
and  500,000  males.  Other  parasites  may  also  be  destroyed 
by  dipping,  as  sheep  lice  and  maggots. 

The  dipping  of  sheep  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin.  The  sheep  industry  in  America,  for  instance, 
flourished  for  at  least  75  years  prior  to  the  introduction 
of  dipping,  and  in  Europe  it  flourished  for  centuries  before 
this  method  of  fighting  parasites  had  been  discovered. 
The  shepherds  of  the  Old  World  had  fought  the  battle 
successfully  against  parasites  in  sheep  for  centuries  be- 
fore the  introduction  of  dipping.  They  did  so  through 
the  practices  of  smearing  and  pouring.  But  the  efficacy 
of  these  practices  for  the  removal  of  parasites  compared 
with  dipping  are  so  far  behind  the  latter  as,  in  a  sense, 


422  MANAGEMENT  AND  FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

to  remove  the  grounds  of  comparison,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  also  in  regard  to  the  greater  relative  cheapness  of 
dipping.  Where  sheep  are  produced  in  a  large  way,  as 
on  the  ranges,  it  would  be  virtually  impossible  to  keep 
them  free  from  external  parasites  in  the  absence  of  dip- 
ping. 

While  dipping  sheep  will  destroy  maggots  which 
sometimes  affect  sheep  and  more  especially  Merinos,  as  at 
the  base  of  the  horns  in  males  and  in  filth  that  may 
accumulate  around  the  anus  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
these  may  be  removed  without  the  necessity  for  dipping 
the  whole  flock.  This  is  done  by  removing  the  wool  from 
the  infected  parts  by  shearing  and  then  applying  some 
agent  that  will  prove  destructive  to  the  maggots,  as,  for 
instance,  spirits  of  turpentine  and  sassafras  oil.  The 
former  should  not  be  used  on  sheep  much  exposed  to  rain. 
The  latter  is  made  by  the  commingling  of  sassafras  oil 
one  part  and  alcohol  four  parts. 

A  second  object  sought  from  dipping  is  to  cleanse 
the  skin  with  a  view  to  promote  healthy  action  in  the  ex- 
udations that  tend  to  maintain  good  health  and  to  pro- 
mote growth  in  the  wool.  The  cleansing  effect  of  some  of 
the  dips  used,  especially  those  with  coal  tar  products  as 
a  base,  is  very  marked.  The  benefits  resulting  in  the 
greater  thrift  that  follows  will  go  far  to  offset  the  shrink- 
age in  weight  and  fleece  that  sometimes  follows  dipping. 

A  third  object  sought  is  increased  growth  of  wool. 
Such  increase  comes  mainly  from  the  increased  thrift  con- 
sequent upon  dipping.  Increase  in  thrift  comes,  first, 
from  relief  from  the  irritation  caused  by  the  presence  of 
parasites,  and,  second,  from  the  more  healthful  action  of 
the  organs  pertaining  to  the  skin.  Such  increase  may 
be  material.  It  may  in  time  far  more  than  compensate 
for  any  loss  that  may  come  from  a  temporary  shock  given 
to  the  system,  such  as  may  come  from  dipping  under 
weather  conditions  that  may  not  be  congenial. 

The  two  classes  of  sheep  dips — Sheep  dips  are  essen- 


DIPPING  SHEEP   FOR  TICKS   AND   SCABS  423 

tially  of  two  classes  with  reference  to  their  source,  re- 
gardless of  the  ingredients  which  they  contain.  These 
are  proprietary  and  non-proprietary  dips. 

The  former  are  made  from  secret  formulas  which  are 
known  only  to  those  who  make  them.  The  basic  ingre- 
dients that  compose  them  may  be  known  in  a  general 
way,  but  the  exact  methods  of  compounding  and  prepar- 
ing them  are  known  only  to  the  proprietors.  Their  effi- 
cacy is  attested  by  testimonials  from  those  who  have 
used  them,  and  by  the  extent  to  which  they  have  come 
into  general  use.  Some  of  those  dips  have  been  in  use 
for  many  years,  and  the  popularity  which  has  come  to 
them  should  be  regarded  as  evidence  of  their  efficacy. 

The  latter  are  non-proprietary.  The  ingredients 
which  compose  them  are  known,  also  the  methods  of 
compounding  and  preparing  them.  They  have  the  sanc- 
tion in  many  instances  of  governmental  authority,  and 
such  sanction  has  been  secured  for  them  on  the  basis  of 
necessity.  Such  necessity  has  arisen  from  the  enactment 
of  laws  for  the  protection  of  sheep,  more  especially  in 
transit,  from  the  contaminating  influences  resulting  from 
the  presence  of  parasites.  In  various  countries  such 
enactments  have  been  found  necessary  for  the  mainte- 
nance and  prosperity  of  the  sheep  industry.  Such  legis- 
lation made  dipping  compulsory  under  certain  conditions, 
and  made  it  necessary  also  to  prescribe  the  ingredients 
that  should  be  used  in  preparing  dips,  the  amount  of  each 
to  be  used,  the  methods  of  compounding  them  and  also 
the  manner  in  which  they  shall  be  used. 

A  somewhat  bitter  and  prolonged  controversy  has 
arisen  between  those  who  have  put  proprietary  dips  on 
the  market  and  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  in  the 
United  States,  with  regard  to  the  dips  that  shall  be  given 
the  authoritative  stamp  of  public  use  in  compulsory  dip- 
ping, as,  for  instance,  when  breeding  stocks  were  about 
to  be  conveyed  from  state  to  state.  The  Bureau  claimed, 
and  apparently  with  reason,  that  before  giving  its  sane- 


424  MANAGEMENT  AND    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

tion  to  the  use  of  proprietary  dips  for  such  use,  the  in- 
gredients composing  them  should  be  disclosed,  with  the 
formulas  for  compounding  them.  The  proprietors  of 
these  dips  objected  on  the  ground  that  to  comply  with 
the  request  of  the  Bureau  would  be  to  give  away  the 
secret  which  was  virtually  the  foundation  on  which  the 
success  of  their  business  rested.  The  real  question  at  is- 
sue was  not  the  efficacy  of  those  proprietary  dips,  or 
whether  they  should  be  used  in  a  private  way,  but 
whether  authorities  representing  the  government  should 
give  their  sanction  to  the  use  of  dips  in  what  may  be  termed 
compulsory  dipping  without  being  fully  informed  as  to 
the  character  of  the  dips.  It  would  seem  in  every  way 
reasonable  that  the  Bureau  should  take  such  a  stand. 
Nor  does  this  conclusion  in  any  way  reflect  upon  the 
efficacy  of  proprietary  dips  or  upon  their  relative  cost. 

The  most  important  of  the  dips  approved  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  are:  (i)  The 
tobacco  and  sulphur  dip ;  (2)  the  lime  and  sulphur  dip ; 
and  (3)  coal  tar  dips,  when  these  are  used  according  to 
the  approved  formulas.  The  use  of  arsenical  and  carbolic 
dips  the  Bureau  does  not  encourage,  even  when  the  for- 
mulas by  which  they  are  made  are  published. 

In  nearly  all  instances,  however,  the  formulas  for 
making  proprietary  dips  have  not  been  disclosed.  That; 
some  of  these  are  efficacious  is  undoubtedly  true.  Tha: 
the  cost  is  not  excessive  is  also  true  in  some  instances. 
But  the  fact  remains  that  in  many  instances  the  purchaser 
takes  chances.  The  only  guarantee  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  solution  is  the  reputation  of  the  individual  or  the  firm 
who  have  put  it  on  the  market.  Of  this  he  cannot  always 
be  able  to  secure  information.  The  best  that  he  can  do 
is  to  purchase  a  dip  the  reputation  of  which  has  brought 
it  into  general  use. 

Proprietary  dips  have  one  advantage  over  non-pro- 
prietary dips  which,  more  than  anything  else,  probably 
accounts  for  their  very  general  use.  They  are  already 


DIPPING  SHEEP   FOR  TICKS   AND   SCABS  425 

admixed,  so  that  with  but  little  labor  added  when  pre- 
paring them  for  use  they  are  ready  to  do  the  work  claimed 
for  them.  In  nearly  all  instances  considerable  labor  is  in- 
volved in  compounding  homemade  dips  and  in  preparing 
them  for  use.  These  proprietary  dips  are  very  numerous 
now,  and  the  number  is  increasing.  The  publicity  given 
to  them  by  the  agricultural  press,  which  in  some  instances 
may  be  the  result  of  patronage,  encourages  their  use. 

The  basic  element  in  dips — All  sheep  dips  have  a 
basic  element;  that  is,  one  or  more  ingredients  which 
gives  to  them  their  efficacy  and  also  the  designation  by 
which  they  are  known.  This  applies  to  both  proprietary 
and  non-proprietary  dips.  The  chief  of  these  have  the 
following  elements  as  their  basis:  (i)  Tobacco  and  sul- 
phur; (2)  lime  and  sulphur;  (3)  coal  tar;  (4)  carbolic 
acid;  and  (5)  arsenic. 

The  tobacco  and  sulphur  dip  stands  high  in  favor, 
not  only  in  the  estimation  of  the  bureau  of  animal  in- 
dustry, but  also  in  the  estimation  of  many  flockmasters 
who  have  used  it,  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  the 
British  colonies  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  where  it  first 
came  into  common  use.  The  almost  complete  eradication 
of  sheep  scab  in  South  Australia  and  New  South  Wales 
which  at  one  time  threatened  the  ruin  of  the  sheep  in- 
dustry, is  due  almost  entirely  to  its  use. 

The  dip  is  prepared  as  follows :  For  every  100  gallons 
of  dip  required,  use  21  pounds  of  tobacco  leaves  of  good 
quality  and  16  pounds  of  flowers  of  sulphur.  Soak  the  leaves 
in  cold  or  lukewarm  water  for  24  hours  in  a  covered  vessel. 
Bring  the  water  to  near  the  boiling  point  for  a  moment 
and  then  remove  from  the  fire.  If  in  the  evening  allow 
the  infusion  to  draw  until  morning,  and  in  any  event  for 
not  less  than  an  hour.  Then  strain  the  mass,  using 
pressure  to  obtain  all  the  nicotine  possible.  Mix  the  flow- 
ers of  sulphur  in  water  so  as  to  make  a  thin  paste  and 
pour  the  same  into  the  dip,  meantime  stirring  it  slowly 
to  prevent  the  sulphur  from  settling,  as  it  otherwise 


426  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

would.  Add  water  if  necessary,  that  there  may  be  100 
gallons  of  the  solution.  After  the  nicotine  solution  has 
been  added,  do  not  raise  its  temperature  higher  than  no 
degrees  F.,  because  of  the  volatile  nature  of  the  nicotine 
when  thus  heated. 

The  tobacco  and  sulphur  dip  is,  all  things  considered, 
one  of  the  most  satisfactory.  It  is  not  very  costly  and  in 
some  instances  the  farmer  can  grow  his  own  tobacco.  It 
is  very  effective,  as  two  of  the  best  destroyers  of  para- 
sites that  infest  the  wool  of  sheep,  viz.,  nicotine  and  sul- 
phur, are  used  together.  The  sulphur  remains  for  a  time 
in  the  wool,  and  thus  far  guards  against  reinfection.  It 
does  not  affect  the  wool  injuriously,  save  by  a  slight 
discoloration  temporarily.  But  to  its  use  there  are  the 
following  drawbacks:  (i)  It  spoils  rapidly,  hence  when 
made  it  must  be  promptly  used ;  (2)  it  occasionally  sick- 
ens the  sheep  and  may  also  thus  affect  those  engaged  in 
dipping,  especially  when  non-smokers;  (3)  the  amount  of 
nicotine  in  the  tobacco  varies,  hence  unless  this  is  known 
the  dip  may  not  be  exactly  of  the  desired  strength.  The 
solution  should  contain  0.05  of  one  per  cent  of  nicotine. 
Because  of  the  variations  in  the  amount  of  nicotine  in 
tobacco,  it  may  be  better  in  many  instances  to  purchase 
a  proprietary  tobacco  dip,  which  has  been  approved  by 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

The  lime  and  sulphur  dip  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and 
also  one  of  the  most  effective  dips  that  have  been  used 
in  treating  sheep  for  scab.  A  somewhat  heated  and  pro- 
longed controversy  with  reference  to  the  place  that 
should  be  assigned  to  it  among  dips  has  arisen  and  pre- 
vailed during  recent  years.  The  parties  to  this  contro- 
versy were  the  bureau  of  animal  industry  on  the  one 
hand  and  certain  agricultural  papers  on  the  other,  who 
may  have  had  some  pecuniary  interest  in  the  outcome  of 
the  discussion. 

The  objections  made  to  the  use  of  this  dip  include 
the  following:  (i)  That  it  injures  the  staple  of  the  wool; 


DIPPING  SHEEP    FOR   TICKS   AND   SCABS  427 

(2)  that  its  continued  use  tends  to  lessen  wool  produc- 
tion ;  (3)  that  it  leads  to  greater  shrinkage  in  the  weight 
of  the  sheep;  (4)  that  it  sometimes  produces  blood  poi- 
soning; and  (5)  that  it  is  not  always  effective  in  killing 
scab.  The  first  objection  is  at  least  measurably  true.  The 
harm  does  consist  mainly  in  a  change  in  the  microscopic 
structure  of  the  fiber  resulting  from  the  caustic  action  of 
the  dip.  The  injury  increases  with  length  and  fineness 
of  the  wool,  and  with  increase  of  sediment  in  the  dip. 
Wools  thus  treated  shrink  more  than  other  wools,  do  not 
scour  so  readily  and  do  not  take  dye  so  uniformly.  But 
when  the  sheep  are  dipped  soon  after  shearing,  this  ob- 
jection would  not  apply.  The  other  objections  have  not 
been  sustained  by  proof.  Much  of  the  injury  complained 
of  has  been  the  outcome  of  using  solutions  wrongly  com- 
pounded and  improperly  prepared.  It  would  seem  correct 
to  say  that  no  dip  has  ever  been  used  so  extensively  and 
with  more  effectiveness.  Moreover  it  is  one  of  the  cheap- 
est of  dips. 

It  is  prepared  as  follows :  To  make  100  gallons  of  the 
dip,  weigh  out  eight  pounds  of  unslaked  lime  and  24 
pounds  of  the  flowers  of  sulphur.  Place  the  lime  in  a  ket- 
tle and  add  enough  water  to  make  a  lime  paste.  Add  to 
this  the  sulphur  by  sifting  it  in  and  so  stirring  the  mass 
as  to  thoroughly  mix  the  ingredients.  Add  to  the  mix- 
ture 25  to  30  gallons  of  boiling  water  and  boil  for  at  least 
two  hours,  stirring  the  mixture  and  sediment  frequently 
during  the  boiling  process.  The  boiling  should  be  con- 
tinued until  the  sulphur  disappears,  or  almost  disappears, 
from  the  surface  of  the  solution,  which  is  then  of  a  more 
or  less  chocolate  color.  Water  is  added  as  necessary. 
Then  pour  the  mixture  and  sediment  into  a  kerosene 
barrel  or  other  vessel  placed  near  the  dipping  vat  and 
provided  with  a  bunghole  about  4  inches  from  the  bottom 
Allow  ample  time  for  the  solution  to  settle,  at  least  two 
or  three  hours,  and  then  draw  off  the  liquid  by  the  aid 
of  a  spigot.  This  is  much  superior  to  the  method  of  re- 


428  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF   SHEEP 

moving  it  by  dipping,  as  dipping  so  stirs  up  the  sediment 
that  the  separation  is  not  complete.  Then  add  water  so 
as  to  make  100  gallons  of  the  solution. 

When  sheep  are  dipped  in  transit,  as  at  the  stock- 
yards, a  dip  is  wanted  in  some  instances  that  will  destroy 
or  remove  scab  at  one  dipping.  Experience  has  shown 
that  the  lime  and  sulphur  dip  comes  the  nearest  among 
dips  to  this  requirement.  To  effectively  destroy  the  scab 
mite,  some  of  the  substance  should  remain  for  a  time  in 
the  wool.  No  dip  has  been  found  so  well  adapted  to  this 
purpose  as  the  lime  and  sulphur  dip.  In  the  early  stages 
of  the  disease  eight  pounds  of  lime  will  suffice  for  each 
100  gallons  of  the  dip,  but  in  advanced  cases  of  scab  with 
thick  and  hard  crusts  12  pounds  may  be  necessary.  It  is 
highly  important  when  using  this  dip  that  the  sediment 
shall  be  kept  separate  from  the  ooze. 

Coal  tar  dips,  now  known  under  various  names,  are 
essentially  of  two  classes.  These  are  known  as  creosote 
and  cresol  dips  respectively.  They  are  in  some  instances 
homemade,  but  in  others  they  are  proprietary.  This  class 
of  dips  has  gained  in  favor  during  recent  years. 

Coal  tar  creosote  dips  contain  coal  tar,  creosote  or 
coal  tar  oils  and  cresylic  acid.  These  are  made  capable 
of  being  emulsified  by  the  admixture  of  resin  soap,  which 
on  the  addition  of  water  forms  a  mixture  that  is  whitish 
milky  in  color.  These  dips  have  proved  very  effective 
in  destroying  scab  mites  and  they  also  leave  the  wool  in 
a  clean,  soft  and  pliable  condition,  which  is  a  strong  point 
in  their  favor.  It  is  also  claimed  for  them  that  they  are 
more  effective  as  tick  lice  destroyers  than  some  other  dips. 
It  is  also  thought  that  they  are  more  effective  in  destroy- 
ing the  egg  of  the  scab  mite  than  some  other  dips,  but  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  even  should  this  prove  true, 
it  will  not  preclude  the  necessity  of  a  second  dipping. 

Cresol  dips  are  made  from  cresylic  acid,  which  is  a 
coal  tar  product,  and  soap.  In  composition  they  are  very 
similar  to  the  product  known  as  lysol.  When  diluted 


.DIPPING   SHEEP    FOR   TICKS    AND    SCABS  429 

with  water  ready  for  use  they  form  a  more  or  less  soapy, 
transparent  solution.  While  they  have  proved  very  effec- 
tive in  the  treatment  of  sheep  scab,  to  their  use  there  is 
the  serious  objection  that  they  tend  to  leave  the  wool 
in  a  dry  and  harsh  condition.  Because  of  this  defect  cresol 
dips  are  not  so  likely  to  come  into  general  use  as  creo- 
sote dips.  These  dips  are  also  affected  with  reference  to 
their  efficacy  by  the  kind  of  water  used.  Soft  water  is 
much  superior  to  hard  water,  since  the  former  emulsifies 
more  readily.  Hard  water  is  greatly  improved  by  the 
addition  of  lye  in  the  manner  practiced  in  laundries.  Be- 
cause of  the  complicated  character  of  the  ingredients  that 
enter  into  the  composition  of  these  dips,  those  who  use 
them  will  probably  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  use  a 
proprietary  coal  tar  dip  which  has  the  approval  of  the 
United  States  department  of  agriculture  and  in  the  pro- 
portions specified  by  the  department. 

Carbolic  dips  have  carbolic  acid  as  their  base.  These 
dips  kill  parasites  very  quickly,  but  the  wash  soon  leaves 
the  wool,  hence  re-infection  is  soon  made  possible.  To 
prevent  such  a  result  one  pound  of  the  flowers  of  sulphur 
should  be  added  to  each  six  gallons  of  the  dip.  These 
dips  are  both  homemade  and  proprietary.  The  benefits 
from  using  these  dips  include  the  following:  (i)  The  pre- 
pared dips  are  very  easily  and  readily  prepared  for  use ; 
(2)  they  act  more  quickly  than  tobacco  and  sulphur  dips ; 
and  (3)  they  are  apparently  more  harmful  to  the  ticks 
than  the  dips  just  named.  The  disadvantages  are:  (i) 
That  in  the  proprietary  dips  of  this  class  the  flockmaster 
is  ignorant  of  the  exact  character  of  the  materials  that  he 
is  using  and  consequently  of  their  value;  (2)  that  the  set- 
back to  the  sheep  has  been  shown  to  be  greater  than  with 
some  other  dips;  and  (3)  they  are  relatively  costly.  If 
carbolic  dips  are  used,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  form 
an  emulsion  if  they  are  to  be  properly  effective.  If  a  scum 
arises  on  the  top,  a  softer  water  ought  to  be  used.  Mean- 


43O  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING   OF    SHEEP 

time  the  department  of  agriculture  has  not  recommended 
the  use  of  these  dips. 

Arsenical  dips  which  are  both  homemade  and  pro- 
prietary have  arsenic  as  their  base.  Very  great  caution 
should  be  observed  when  using  these  dips  because  of  their 
highly  poisonous  character. 

A  formula  that  has  received  high  commendation  in 
certain  quarters  is  the  following:  Commercially  pure 
arsenite  of  soda  14  pounds,  ground  roll  sulphur  34^ 
pounds,  water  432  gallons.  The  arsenite  of  soda  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  sulphur  before  adding  the 
water. 

The  advantages  from  using  it  are:  (i)  That  it  has 
scab-curing  properties,  and  (2)  that  because  of  this  it 
enters  into  the  composition  of  a  number  of  dipping  pow- 
ders, some  of  which  have  been  long  and  more  or  less  ef- 
fectively used.  But  to  its  use  there  are  the  following  dis- 
advantages:  (i)  Arsenic  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  is  there- 
fore dangerous  to  the  sheep,  and  in  some  degree  to  those 
who  use  it  unless  much  care  is  exercised  in  handling  it; 
(2)  it  has  a  drying  effect  on  the  wool,  weakens  the  fiber 
of  the  new  growth  that  immediately  follows,  and  fails  to 
stimulate  the  growth  of  the  wool  as  good  oleaginous  dips 
do ;  (3)  it  tends  to  throw  the  sheep  off  their  feed  for  sev- 
eral days,  in  some  instances  at  least,  after  the  dipping; 
(4)  its  frequent  effect  on  the  skin  is  to  produce  excoria- 
tion, blistering  and  hardness.  After  the  dipping  the  yards 
into  which  the  sheep  are  turned  should  be  completely 
destitute  of  food  and  litter.  Every  facility  should  be 
given  to  sheep  to  dry  quickly,  and  on  no  account  should 
they  be  turned  on  to  the  pastures  until  the  dripping  has 
ceased.  Even  after  it  has  ceased,  the  danger  is  sometimes 
present  for  a  time  that  rain  may  wash  enough  of  the 
arsenic  out  of  the  fleece  to  render  the  pastures  dangerous 
at  least  for  a  time.  The  United  States  department  of 
agriculture  has  not  put  the  stamp  of  approval  on  those 
dips. 


DIPPING  SHEEP    FOR   TICKS   AND   SCABS  43! 

The  dipping  of  sheep  is  usually  followed  by  loss  of 
weight  for  a  limited  period,  and  this  in  turn  is  usually 
followed  by  increase.  If  sheep  are  weighed  just  before 
dipping,  and  again  24  hours  subsequently,  it  will  be  found 
that  a  loss  of  weight  has  resulted  ranging  from  one-half 
pound  to  three  and  one-half  pounds.  In  the  next  two  or 
three  weeks  some  gain  may  be  looked  for.  When  tobacco 
and  sulphur  have  been  used  the  gains  have  not  been  far 
different.  From  carbolic  dips  they  have  proved  less  sat- 
isfactory. 

The  dipping  plant — The  dipping  plant  will  be  dis- 
cussed from  the  standpoint,  first,  of  the  large  or  range 
flock ;  second,  from  that  of  the  ordinary  farm  flock ;  and, 
third,  from  that  of  the  farmer  who  has  but  a  few  ani- 
mals. Dipping  at  the  stockyards  is  now  done  by  methods 
prescribed  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry ;  hence  the 
owner  of  the  sheep  dipped  is  not  completely  at  liberty  to 
say  how  the  work  shall  be  done. 

When  dipping  a  large  flock  of  sheep  that  runs  up,  say, 
into  the  hundreds  or  thousands,  and  for  successive  years, 
as  on  the  range,  to  locate  permanently  the  dipping  plant 
will  be  money  well  spent  and  also  to  construct  it  of  ma- 
terial that  will  endure,  as  of  brick  or  cement,  when  these 
materials  may  be  obtained  without  too  much  cost.  The 
requisites  of  such  a  plant  include  the  following:  (i)  Re- 
ceiving yards  in  which  to  hold  the  sheep  that  are  to  be 
dipped.  These  will  vary  in  size  and  number  with  the 
numbers  in  the  flock.  From  the  yard  nearest  to  the 
dipping  plant  is  a  narrow  drive  or  chute  through  which 
the  sheep  are  driven  single  file  to  make  the  plunge  into 
the  dipping  vat.  If  these  yards  are  provided  with  a  floor 
that  drains  to  a  common  point,  they  may  be  easily  slushed 
with  the  aid  of  a  hose,  should  this  be  desired.  (2)  A  dip- 
ping vat  or  tank.  These  vary  in  the  shape  given  to  them, 
but  the  oblong  dipping  vat  is  that  most  commonly  used. 
The  length  will,  of  course,  vary.  The  longer  the  vat,  the 
greater  is  the  saving  in  the  time  effected  in  dipping  be- 


43^  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

cause  of  the  larger  number  of  the  animals  that  may  be 
in  it  at  one  time,  but  the  more  expensive  will  it  be  in  the 
quantity  of  the  dip  called  for.  It  should  not  be  less  than 
20  feet,  and  in  some  instances  may  exceed  100  feet.  The 
depth  is  from  4  to  5  feet,  and  the  width  from  24  to  30 
inches  at  the  top  and  9  to  12  inches  at  the  bottom.  It 
should  be  sunk  in  the  ground,  save  the  top  9  to  12  inches, 
and  should  slant  a  little  in  the  bottom  toward  the  receiv- 
ing end  to  facilitate  the  emptying  or  removing  of  the  dip. 
It  should  be  protected  by  a  low  fence  at  the  places  of  en- 
trance and  exit,  to  keep  the  sheep  in  correct  line.  Toward 
the  place  of  exit  the  floor  of  the  vat  should  incline  up- 
ward, the  length  of  the  incline  being  not  less  than  9  feet, 
and  it  should  have  slats  or  cleats  across  it  about  a  foot  or 
less  in  distance  from  one  another  to  enable  the  sheep  to 
walk  up  and  into  the  dripping  pens.  (3)  There  should  be 
two  dripping  pens,  with  a  swinging  gate  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  incline,  which  may  open  or  close  either  of  the  two. 
When  one  division  is  filled  with  sheep  that  have  been 
dipped  the  gate  is  closed  on  these  until  the  other  is  filled. 
The  former  are  then  removed  through  a  gate  at  the  far- 
ther end  of  the  pen,  which  is  then  ready  to  receive  another 
lot.  The  floor  of  each  dripping  pen  should  slant  some- 
what toward  the  fence  between  them.  Under  it  should 
be  a  gutter  to  carry  the  drip  back  into  the  vat,  but  at  the 
end  near  the  vat  there  should  be  a  wire  grate  to  hold 
back  droppings  and  wool  that  may  have  been  carried 
downward.  (4)  Provision  should  be  made  for  preparing 
the  dip  when  such  preparing  is  needed  and  for  heating  it, 
whatsoever  kind  may  be  used.  When  prepared  dips  are 
used  water  is  led  into  the  vat.  The  dip  is  then  added  ac- 
cording to  the  directions,  and  it  may  be  heated  by  steam 
conveyed  through  a  hose  attached  to  a  heater.  This, 
however,  does  not  preclude  the  necessity  for  a  boiler  to 
heat  fresh  ooze  for  replenishing  the  supply  in  the  vats. 
It  will  be  advantageous  to  have  two  heating  or  boiling 
tanks  that  will  hold  from  300  to  400  gallons,  and  these 


DIPPING   SHEEP    FOR   TICKS    AND    SCABS  433 

should  be  set  in  brick  or  stone  frames  with  a  fireplace 
underneath.  If  tobacco  and  sulphur  dip  is  used,  there 
should  be  two  caldrons  with  covers.  If  lime  and  sul- 
phur dip  is  used,  one  or  more  settling  tubs  may  be  neces- 
sary. The  boiled  dip  may  be  pumped  into  these  and  then 
drawn  off  into  the  vats,  excluding  the  sediment.  (5)  The 
other  requisites  include :  Graduating  marks  on  the  inside 
of  the  vats  and  heating  tanks  to  indicate  the  quantity  of 
the  mixtures  present,  scales  for  weighing  the  ingredients, 
should  such  weighing  be  necessary,  a  portable  pump  for 
moving  the  liquid,  and  one  or  more  thermometers  to  in- 
dicate the  temperature  of  the  ooze,  both  in  process  of 
preparation  and  prepared. 

When  dipping  a  flock  of  ordinary  size  the  dipping  vat 
may  be  permanent  and  stationary,  or  it  may  be  movable, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  manufactured  metal  tanks  that  may 
be  obtained  by  purchase.  The  materials  used,  when  of 
home  construction,  may  consist  of  wood,  brick  or  cement. 
When  made  of  wood,  pine  planks  i*/2  to  2  inches  thick, 
and  tongued  and  grooved,  may  be  used.  These  are  nailed 
on  the  inside  of  a  frame  made  of  scantlings  2x4  inches  or 
larger.  In  such  instances  the  joints  are  also  pitched  over. 
When  the  flock  does  not  exceed,  say,  50  to  100  animals,  a 
small  portable  dipping  vat  may  be  used.  Some  portion  of 
the  barn  or  sheds  may  be  used  as  a  catching  pen  for  the 
time  being.  The  sheep  may  be  lifted  into  the  vat  and 
when  dipped  may  be  held  for  a  short  time  at  the  top  of 
the  incline  to  drip.  This  will  do  away  with  the  necessity 
for  a  draining  yard,  but  this  method  is  extremely  slow. 
The  dripping  may  be  hastened  through  the  squeezing  of 
the  wool  by  the  attendants. 

Where  the  numbers  exceed  those  stated,  and  where 
the  sheep  are  dipped  once  or  twice  a  year,  the  plant 
should  be  permanent.  When  dipping  large  flocks,  the 
following  conveniences,  should  be  present :  A  vat  of  suit- 
able dimensions,  a  drive  or  chute  through  which  the  sheep 
are  forced  into  the  vat,  a  yard  or  its  equivalent  from 


434 


MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 


which  the  sheep  are  forced  into  the  drive,  an  incline  with 
cleats  at  the  further  end  of  the  tank,  and  a  draining  pen 
to  carry  the  drip  back  into  the  vat.  There  should  also 
be  suitable  heating  apparatus.  A  heater  or  cooker,  such 
as  is  used  in  heating  or  cooking  food  for  swine,  may  be 
used  in  preparing  and  renewing  the  dip. 


FIG.  21— GROUND  PLAN  OF  DIPPING  PLANT  AT  WAUKESHA,  WIS. 
(Courtesy  of  the  owners) 

The  method  of  dipping  sheep  at  the  Anoka  Stock 
Farm  at  Waukesha,  Wis.,  will  now  be  submitted,  in  the 
belief  that  it  will  prove  helpful  to  any  who  may  find  it 
necessary  to  construct  a  dipping  plant  for  the  benefit  of 
the  farm  flock.  This  farm  is  owned  and  operated,  by 
George  Harding  and  Son.  The  dipping  vat  is  located  at 
the  rear  end  of  the  hog  house,  which  is  on  sloping  ground. 
A  platform  extends  out  about  6  feet  from  the  hog  house, 
from  which  stock,  as  young  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  are 
loaded  on  to  a  wagon.  The  passage  in  the  hog  house  is  40 
feet  long  and  6  feet  wide,  and  it  will  hold  at  one  time  about 
40  sheep  of  average  size.  The  door,  which  is  as  wide  as 
the  platform,  swings  outward,  and  is  thus  made  to  form  a 


DIPPING  SHEEP   FOR  TICKS   AND   SCABS  435 

barrier  on  one  side  of  the  passage  from  the  alley  to  the 
vat.  The  other  side  has  protection  that  is  temporary  and 
movable.  The  dipping  vat  comes  up  against  the  side  of 
the  platform  and  extends  outward  from  the  end  of  the  hog 
house.  It  is  on  a  level  with  the  platform  and  also  of  the 
dripping  pens  at  the  opposite  end.  The  vat  is  9  feet  long 
on  the  top,  6  feet  long  on  the  bottom,  3  feet  8  inches  deep, 
2  feet  wide  at  the  top  and  I  foot  at  the  bottom.  These  are 
the  dimensions  inside  the  vat.  The  draining  yard  or  pen, 
6  x  12  feet,  is  divided  by  a  partition  so  as  to  make  two 
inclosures,  each  of  which  will  hold  8  sheep.  The  drain- 
ing pen  is  slightly  depressed  toward  the  partition  so  as 
to  carry  the  ooze  back  into  the  vat.  At  the  end  of  the 
partition  toward  the  vat  is  a  gate  which  swings  both 


c 
n  n  nr1                                               £ 

M            M  

U  U_, 

HT.  ii 

FIG.  22— DIPPING  VAT  FOR  A  SMALL  FLOCK 

ways.  The  draining  pen  and  also  the  projecting  platform 
are  about  2^2  feet  from  the  ground.  One  man  puts  the 
sheep  into  the  vat;  two  men,  one  on  each  side,  care  for 
them  when  there,  and  a  boy  opens  the  gate,  when  neces- 
sary at  the  rear  of  each  dripping  pen.  From  three  to 
four  sheep  are  in  the  tank  at  one  time,  and  they  remain 
in  two  minutes.  The  dip  is  prepared  by  utilizing  the 
boiler  in  the  hog  house.  The  eaves  of  the  hog  house  sup- 
ply the  vat  with  more  or  less  water  all  the  time,  and  this 
is  used  in  preparing  food  for  the  swine,  but  the  vat  is 
thoroughly  cleansed  after  each  dipping.  In  this  way  but 
little  more  than  an  hour  is  used  for  dipping  100  sheep 
after  all  things  have  been  made  ready  for  the  work. 

For  a  small  flock  a  good-sized  tub  may  be  used  or  what 
is  more  convenient,  a  small  dipping  vat  such  as  may  now  be 


436  MANAGEMENT   AND  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

readily  obtained  by  purchase.  The  sheep  are  lifted  into 
the  vat  by  two  men.  When  dipped  sufficiently  long,  they 
are  held  for  a  short  time  on  a  draining  board  or  table  that 
will  carry  the  ooze  back  into  the  vat.  The  dripping  may 
be  hastened  by  squeezing  the  wool  while  the  sheep  are 
on  the  draining  board. 

The  season  for  dipping — The  dipping  of  sheep  may  be 
done  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year.  Should  it  be  as- 
certained that  sheep  are  affected  with  scab  when  tem- 
peratures run  low,  the  deferring  of  the  dipping  until  the 
arrival  of  warm  weather  will  unquestionably  result  in 
greater  loss  than  any  loss  that  may  accrue  from  judicious 
dipping  in  the  winter  season.  This  will  also  apply  to 
sheep  that  are  much  infested  with  ticks,  the  presence  of 
which,  because  of  their  numbers,  may  give  rise  to  great 
suffering  on  the  part  of  the  sheep.  The  loss  resulting 
from  the  presence  of  those  parasites  will  be  much  greater 
than  the  loss  that  may  arise  from  judicious  dipping  in  the 
winter  season.  Experiments  have  shown  that  dipping 
may  be  conducted  with  a  measurable  degree  of  safety 
even  in  the  winter  season,  and  as  far  northward  as  the 
parallel  45  degrees,  when  the  sheep  are  properly  cared 
for  after  the  dipping.  Such  care  includes  providing  them 
with  quarters  that  are  reasonably  warm  and  that  are  com- 
pletely protected  from  drafts.  That  dipping  may  be  thus 
conducted  without  hazard  to  the  sheep  has  been  amply 
demonstrated  in  experiments  conducted  at  the  Wisconsin 
station  by  the  late  lamented  Prof.  John  A.  Craig. 

The  fact  remains,  nevertheless,  that  there  are  seasons 
for  dipping  that  are  more  favorable  for  the  prosecution 
of  this  than  other  seasons.  The  best  time  for  dipping 
sheep,  all  things  considered,  is  just  after  the  sheep  have 
been  shorn  in  the  spring.  When  dipped  at  that  season, 
the  amount  of  dip  called  for  is  much  less  than  at  other 
seasons,  because  of  the  absence  of  wool  on  sheep  that  are 
thus  dipped.  If  the  lambs  are  dipped  at  the  same  time, 
and  if  due  precautions  are  observed  to  prevent  re-infection, 


DIPPING  SHEEP   FOR  TICKS   AND   SCABS  437 

such  dipping  will  go  far  to  prevent  re-infection  by  ticks. 
But  to  make  sure  that  the  freedom  from  parasitical  inva- 
sion will  be  complete,  a  second  dipping  from  10  to  14 
days  after  the  first  dipping  is  thought  necessary  in  order 
to  destroy  the  ticks  in  the  one  case  and  the  scab  mites  in 
the  other  that  may  have  hatched  from  nits  or  eggs  that 
were  not  destroyed  in  the  previous  dipping. 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  weather  conditions, 
the  two  best  seasons  for  dipping  are  those  which  follow 
the  shearing  of  the  sheep  and  which  precede  the  bring- 
ing of  the  sheep  into  winter  quarters.  When  sheep  are 
dipped  after  the  usual  time  for  shearing,  the  dipping  takes 
place  at  that  season  when  the  hazard  from  dipping  is 
eliminated  because  of  adverse  weather  conditions;  and 
when  it  is  done  in  the  early  autumn,  it  is  done  before  such 
hazard  has  come  to  the  management  of  the  flock.  But  it 
would  be  better  to  dip  the  sheep  even  in  winter  than  to 
sustain  on  them  an  army  of  ticks  after  the  winter  season 
has  set  in.  Even  though  some  loss  should  follow  the 
dipping,  it  will  be  less  than  the  loss  which  follows  from 
allowing  ticks  or  scab-infested  sheep  to  go  undipped. 

Some  authorities  claim  that  the  dipping  of  sheep 
twice  a  year  is  a  necessity — in  the  spring  and  in  the 
autumn.  These  include  the  names  of  men  who  have  made 
a  name  for  themselves  in  sheep  husbandry,  and  especially 
in  the  leading  show  rings  of  prominent  states.  To  take  a 
stand  in  opposition  to  the  conclusions  of  such  men  may 
seem  presumptuous ;  but  that  is  the  ground  on  which  the 
author  stands  with  reference  to  the  sheep  tick  and  also 
with  reference  to  the  scab  mite.  If  the  sheep  are  properly 
dipped  in  the  spring  twice  in  succession,  with  an  interval 
of  10  days  between  the  dippings,  and  if  due  care  is  ex- 
ercised with  reference  to  the  safeguarding  of  the  sheep 
that  have  been  dipped,  it  should  be  possible  to  so  free  the 
sheep  from  parasites  that  infection  would  be  so  com- 
pletely eliminated  as  to  render  further  dipping  unneces- 
sary, except  in  the  case  of  animals  brought  into  the  flock 


438  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

from  outside  sources.  The  common  view  that  parasites 
may  be  kept  well  in  check  through  dipping,  but  cannot  be 
wholly  eliminated,  is  certainly  fallacious.  It  tends  to  dis- 
courage the  effort  to  maintain  flocks  that  shall  be  wholly 
free  from  infestation,  and  yet  it  should  be  possible  to 
maintain  such  flocks  as  the  rule,  and  not  as  the  exception. 
It  should  be  possible  to  maintain  flocks  from  year  to  year 
on  the  arable  farm  that  would  be  absolutely  free  from 
parasitical  invasion,  and  that  would,  therefore,  be  free 
from  the  necessity  of  being  dipped. 

Facts  that  bear  upon  dipping — The  amount  of  the 
prepared  dip  called  for  cannot  be  stated,  even  in  an  ap- 
proximate way.  It  will  be  at  once  apparent  that  the 
amount  of  the  dip  called  for  will  vary :  (i)  With  the  num- 
bers to  be  dipped ;  (2)  with  the  size  of  the  sheep ;  and  (3) 
with  the  amount  of  wool  which  they  carry.  It  will  be  at 
once  apparent  that  the  proportionate  amount  of  dip  called 
for  will  increase  with  increase  in  the  numbers  of  the  sheep 
to  be  dipped,  and  vice  versa.  This  will  be  apparent  from 
the  fact  that  enough  prepared  dip  is  called  for  to  sub- 
merge the  sheep  before  one  can  be  properly  dipped.  After 
that  quantity  has  been  provided,  enough  only  is  to  be 
added  to  make  up  for  the  dip  that  has  been  carried  away 
by  the  sheep  after  they  have  left  the  dripping  pens.  It 
is  also  very  evident  that  a  large  sheep  will  carry  away 
more  adherent  dip  than  a  small  one,  and  that  a  long  fleece 
will  carry  away  more  than  a  short  one,  and  that  a  short 
fleece  will  carry  away  more  than  a  sheep  but  recently  de- 
prived of  its  wool.  The  quantity  of  dip  called  for  may 
vary  from  one  to  four  quarts  to  an  animal. 

The  renewal  of  the  supply  of  the  dip  during  the  dip- 
ping process  should  be  carefully  provided  for.  If  the  sup- 
ply of  the  dip  were  to  run  low,  the  outcome  would  be  im- 
perfect dipping,  and  a  repetition  of  the  dipping  in  the  near 
future.  The  dip  thus  provided  as  supplemental  may  also 
be  made  to  aid  in  keeping  the  dip  in  the  vat  at  a  proper 
temperature.  To  accomplish  this,  the  dip  added  should 


DIPPING  SHEEP   FOR  TICKS   AND   SCABS  439 

be  possessed  of  a  higher  temperature  than  the  dip  in  the 
vat,  and  also  of  a  higher  temperature  than  is  called  for  in 
the  dipping  process.  The  most  desirable  temperature  Is 
100  to  no  degrees,  the  internal  temperature  of  the  sheep 
being  about  103  degrees  F. 

The  time  that  the  sheep  should  remain  in  the  dip  will 
vary,  first,  with  the  strength  of  the  dip  used,  and  second, 
with  the  nature  of  the  parasite  that  is  causing  trouble. 
When  dipping  for  ticks,  the  sheep  should  be  in  the  dip  for 
at  least  one  minute,  and  when  dipping  for  scab  for  not 
less  than  two  minutes.  When  dipping  for  scab,  it  is 
greatly  important  that  the  sheep  remain  full  time  in  the 
dip,  as  many  mites  are  under  the  scales  which  are  not 
readily  reached  by  the  dips.  The  head  of  each  sheep 
should  also  be  plunged  beneath  the  dip  before  it  is 
allowed  to  emerge  from  the  same,  except  in  the  case  of 
such  poisonous  dips  as  the  arsenical  and  carbolic  dips. 

It  is  greatly  important  that  the  dipping  for  scab  shall 
be  effective.  If  any  of  the  mites  survive  underneath  the 
scabs  they  may  lay  eggs  between  the  dippings  that  will 
not  be  hatched  out  before  the  second  dipping.  Should 
this  happen,  a  third  dipping  may  be  necessary.  To  pre- 
vent such  a  contingency,  some  have  advocated  the  use  of 
a  preliminary  dip  to  soften  the  scabs.  This  is  applied 
two  or  three  days  prior  to  the  first  dipping.  In  almost  all 
instances,  however,  the  first  dipping  is  given  in  the  usual 
way,  and  if  properly  done  the  instances  are  very  few 
when  a  third  dipping  is  necessary.  Where  only  a  small 
flock  is  to  be  treated,  it  would  be  practicable,  and  it  may 
also  be  economical,  to  rub  oil  of  glycerine  over  the  scabby 
places  two  or  three  days  prior  to  the  first  dipping.  With 
sheep  newly  shorn  this  treatment  would  not  be  difficult. 

When  dipping  sheep,  it  is  greatly  important  that  they 
shall  be  carefully  handled.  They  are  much  averse  to  tak- 
ing a  plunge  bath,  and  when  they  try  to  escape  from  it 
there  is  neither  reason  nor  justification  in  handling  them 
roughly.  They  are  easily  injured.  When  heavy  sheep 


440  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

emerge  from  the  vat,  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  them 
some  assistance  when  walking  up  the  incline  and  to 
squeeze  some  of  the  ooze  out  of  the  wool  before  they 
reach  the  draining  pens.  When  dipped  in  a  tub,  two  men 
are  called  for  to  lift  them.  One  grasps  the  forelegs  after 
the  sheep  has  been  laid  on  its  side  and  the  other  the 
hind  legs,  and  it  is  lifted  into  the  tub  with  the  back 
downwards. 

Care  of  sheep  subsequently  to  dipping — As  soon  as 
sheep  have  been  dipped,  the  aim  should  be  to  at  once 
change  their  quarters.  In  fact,  it  is  imperative  that  this 
shall  be  done,  at  least  for  a  time,  in  the  case  of  sheep  scab ; 
otherwise,  re-infestation  will  take  place.  This  may  usually 
be  accomplished  without  difficulty  after  the  season  for 
pasturing  has  arrived.  But  when  the  dipping  must  be 
done  in  the  winter  season,  change  of  quarters  may  not  be 
practicable.  In  such  instances  there  is  no  way  of  escape 
from  the  necessity  for  disinfecting  the  quarters  occupied 
by  the  sheep.  The  necessity  for  disinfecting  would  not 
seem  to  be  always  imperative.  When  the  quarters  pre- 
viously occupied  by  sheep  have  been  completely  vacated 
for,  say,  six  months,  in  the  case  of  scab,  disinfection 
would  not  seem  to  be  necessary.  The  labor  and  cost  of 
disinfection  should  not  be  imposed  when  the  necessity 
for  it  does  not  exist. 

When  disinfection  does  take  place,  it  should  follow 
the  second  dipping;  that  is,  when  the  two  dippings  follow 
each  other  in  from  10  to  14  days,  as  they  should  for  scab. 
The  disinfection  should  be  very  thorough.  It  should  be- 
gin by  removing  all  litter  and  manure  from  the  quarters 
previously  occupied  by  the  sheep,  including  the  yards. 
Thorough  spraying  of  the  sheds  inside  and  out,  of  the 
racks,  mangers  and  alleys,  and  of  the  yards  and  fences 
inclosing  them  should  follow.  Various  ingredients  may 
be  used  in  thus  disinfecting  the  premises.  A  coal  tar  dip 
will  be  very  effective.  A  5  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solu- 
tion is  also  excellent.  But  why  not  use  the  residue  of  the 


DIPPING   SHEEP   FOR   TICKS   AND    SCABS  44! 

dip  in  disinfecting  the  premises,  especially  when  this  can 
be  done  immediately  after  the  dipping  of  the  sheep  and 
before  the  dip  has  lost  any  of  its  strength?  Such  use  of 
the  surplus  dip  should  certainly  be  economical.  The  noz- 
zle of  the  sprayer  should  be  such  as  to  apply  the  dip  in 
suitable  quantity ;  that  is  freely  enough  and  without  un- 
necessary waste.  Whitewashing  following  the  spraying 
will  be  an  additional  safeguard  as  to  the  effectiveness  of 
the  work. 

Removing  parasites  by  other  methods — Before  dip- 
ping was  introduced  for  destroying  parasites  on  sheep, 
other  methods  of  combating  them  were  of  necessity  fol- 
lowed. These  included:  (i)  Pouring  liquids  from  a  ves- 
sel ;  (2)  applying  unguents  to  the  skin ;  and  (3)  by  feed- 
ing certain  preparations.  Compared  with  dipping,  these 
methods  were  of  necessity  laborious,  costly  and  not  al- 
ways effective.  They  were  laborious  because  of  the  time 
and  effort  called  for  to  treat  sheep  singly.  They  were 
costly  because  of  the  large  amount  of  the  materials  called 
for.  They  were  not  always  effective,  for  the  reason  that 
the  application  seldom  reached  all  parts  of  the  carcass. 

When  liquids  were  applied  by  pouring,  three  persons 
were  called  for  to  do  the  work  effectively.  The  liquid 
most  commonly  used  was  a  decoction  made  by  steeping 
tobacco  leaves  or  stems.  One  person  held  the  sheep  to 
be  treated ;  a  second  person  opened  the  wool  along  one 
side,  a  little  below  the  backbone  from  the  neck  to  the 
tail,  and  a  third  person  poured  in  the  liquid  where  the 
wool  had  been  thus  shed.  In  some  instances  the  sheep 
was  then  set  upon  its  buttock  and  more  or  less  of  the 
liquid  was  poured  on  to  the  lower  part  of  the  paunch, 
beginning  at  the  brisket.  This  method  has  rendered  rea- 
sonably good  service  in  killing  ticks,  but  for  treating 
scab  it  was  not  greatly  helpful.  In  the  absence  of  a  dip- 
ping plant  there  may  be  times  when  this  method  of  com- 
bating ticks  may  be  resorted  to  with  profit,  especially  in 
the  autumn  season. 


442  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

The  process  of  applying  ointments,  usually  spoken  of 
as  smearing,  was  very  common  before  the  dipping  age 
began.  Mercurial  ointment  was  the  favorite  unguent 
used.  The  work  of  an  expert  in  this  line  was  done  some- 
what as  follows :  He  caught  the  sheep,  laid  it  carefully 
on  its  side  and  seated  himself  on  a  good-sized  batting  of 
straw.  The  head  of  the  sheep  rested  on  the  operator's 
shoulder  when  stooping  over  it  and  the  body  was  between 
his  legs.  To  his  left  wrist  the  horn  of  a  heifer  was  at- 
tached, rilled  with  the  ointment.  This  left  both  hands 
free  to  shed  the  wool,  the  ointment  being  taken  from  the 
horn  by  the  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand  and  smeared 
in  the  opening.  Two  strips  were  opened  down  the  side 
on  one  shoulder,  and  in  most  instances  it  was  applied  on 
some  other  parts.  This  method  of  righting  ticks  was  quite 
helpful,  but  to  fight  scab  by  this  method  was  greatly 
laborious  and  more  or  less  dangerous,  because  of  the  ex- 
ceedingly poisonous  character  of  the  ointment. 

The  opinion  has  been  commonly  expressed  that  if 
sulphur  is  fed  to  sheep  in  small  quantities,  either  at  short 
intervals  or  continuously  for  long  periods,  that  it  will  ma- 
terially reduce  the  liability  of  infestation  by  ticks.  When 
so  fed  the  sulphur  is  added  to  the  salt  in  the  proportions, 
of,  say,  two  to  three  parts  of  sulphur  in  100  parts  of  the 
mixture.  While  sulphur  used  as  a  part  of  the  mixture 
in  dipping  is  more  or  less  of  a  protection  against  speedy 
re-infection,  since  its  effects  linger  for  a  time  in  the  wool, 
it  does  not  follow  that  the  same  results  may  be  looked 
for  from  feeding  sulphur  to  the  sheep  in  the  manner  men- 
tioned. The  influence,  if  any,  is  not  enough  to  be  very 
material.  It  has  also  been  claimed  that  when  tobacco  is 
fed  to  sheep,  it  will  tend  to  protect  them  from  internal 
parasites  (see  page  395),  such  as  stomach  worms,  and  that 
the  same  or  similar  results  may  be  looked  for  from  feed- 
ing certain  mixtures,  proprietary  and  otherwise.  In  re- 
gard to  these  it  may  be  said  that  their  efficacy  has  not 
been  fully  demonstrated. 


DIPPING   SHEEP    FOR   TICKS   AND   SCABS  443 

How  far  dipping  is  a  necessity — Dipping  under  ex- 
isting conditions  is  a  necessity  wherever  sheep  are 
affected  with  ticks  or  scab.  While  it  would  be  possible 
to  eradicate  both  from  infested  flocks,  the  cost  of  such 
eradication  would  be  much  greater.  This  would  be  true, 
even  of  small  lots  of  sheep,  since  these  may  be  dipped  in 
a  homemade  dipping  tub,  which  involves  but  little  cost. 
Many  authorities  favor  dipping  sheep  for  ticks  in  the 
spring  just  after  they  are  shorn,  and  again  in  the  autumn 
when  they  are  to  be  brought  into  winter  quarters.  If 
when  the  sheep  are  dipped  for  ticks  after  being  shorn, 
the  lambs  are  allowed  to  go  without  dipping,  the  relief 
to  the  sheep  would  only  be  temporary,  for  soon  re-infes- 
tation would  follow,  the  ticks  coming  from  the  lambs. 
Dipping  the  lambs  is  even  more  necessary  than  dipping 
the  sheep,  for  the  reason,  first,  that  the  ticks  virtually 
leave  sheep  that  are  closely  shorn  for  a  time  after  they  are 
shorn,  because  the  protection  has  been  removed  by  shear- 
ing, and  second,  the  ticks  are  a  greater  source  of  annoy- 
ance to  the  lambs  because  of  the  greater  tenderness  of 
their  skin.  A  second  dipping,  10  to  14  days  later,  should 
complete  the  work  of  removal,  both  with  ticks  and  scab. 
If  the  sheep  and  lambs  are  both  moved  entirely  away 
from  old  quarters  after  the  second  dipping,  they  should 
be  thenceforth  free  from  those  two  classes  of  parasites. 
Why,  then,  should  further  dipping  be  necessary  for  such 
removal  ? 

But  there  may  be  some  necessity  for  dipping  sheep 
of  the  middle  and  coarse-wool  breeds,  in  order  to  cleanse 
the  wool  from  dirt  and  to  give  the  skin  a  bright  appear- 
ance. Only  some  of  the  dips  will  do  this  satisfactorily. 
This  claim  has  been  made  in  behalf  of  the  carbolic  dips. 
To  accomplish  this  end  when  these  classes  of  sheep  are 
to  be  shown,  may  call  for  dipping,  even  when  the  sheep 
are  free  from  parasites.  But  it  would  not  be  profitable  to 
dip  sheep  thus,  simply  to  cleanse  the  fleece  in  the  absence 


444  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

of  some  ulterior  purpose,  as  for  instance,  that  of  enter- 
ing the  show  ring. 

When  the  flockmaster  is  breeding  sheep  and  is  buy- 
ing occasionally  to  add  to  his  holdings,  the  necessity  for 
dipping  at  least  once,  and  probably  twice,  a  year  will  con- 
tinue. But  should  the  farmer  have  only  a  small  flock, 
whether  he  breeds  for  sale  or  mainly  for  a  home  supply  of 
mutton,  what  is  there  to  hinder  him  from  getting  com- 
pletely rid  of  ticks  or  scab  by  the  two  consecutive  dip- 
pings? Why,  in  such  an  instance,  should  there  be  any 
necessity  for  further  dipping,  save  in  the  case  of  a  male 
that  may  be  brought  in  occasionally  to  head  the  flock? 
In  the  face  of  such  facts,  why  should  the  conclusion  be 
accepted  that  dipping  is  a  necessary  work  that  must  go 
on  from  year  to  year  ? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
ESTABLISHING  A  FLOCK  AND  IMPROVING  IT 

In  Chapter  XXI  the  following  phases  of  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats  are  discussed:  (i)  Important  considera- 
tions when  establishing  a  flock ;  (2)  Establishing  a  pure- 
bred flock ;  (3)  Establishing  a  flock  of  grades ;  (4)  The 
sires  used  in  grade  flocks;  (5)  The  improvement  of  the 
flock ;  (6)  Improvement  through  the  sires ;  (7)  Improve- 
ment through  selection ;  (8)  Improvement  through  food ; 
(9)  When  crossing  is  legitimate;  (10)  Breeding  for  single 
or  twin  lambs;  (u)  Much  should  be  left  to  the  good 
shepherd. 

Important  considerations — The  most  important  con- 
sideration when  establishing  a  flock  of  sheep  is  that  of 
environment.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  measure  of 
the  success  in  keeping  sheep  will  be  proportionate  to  the 
completeness  in  adaptation  of  the  environment  to  the 
needs  of  the  kind  of  sheep  kept.  Prominent  among  the 
phases  of  environment  are:  (i)  the  nature  of  the  land; 
(2)  the  production  of  the  same ;  (3)  the  character  of  the 
water  supply;  (4)  the  hazard  from  predatory  animals; 
and  (5)  the  natural  protection. 

The  nature  of  the  land,  as  to  its  contour  and  also  to 
its  freedom  from  an  excess  of  moisture,  should  be  care- 
fully considered.  Level  lands  are  relatively  best  adapted 
to  the  heavy  breeds,  undulating  or  rolling  lands  to  the 
middle  breeds  and  rugged  and  mountain  lands  to  the  light 
breeds.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  heavy  breeds,  as  the 
Lincoln  and  Cotswold,  cannot  be  kept  successfully  on  un- 
dulating or  rolling  lands,  nor  does  it  mean  that  the  middle 
breeds,  as  the  Shropshire,  cannot  be  kept  successfully  on 
level  lands,  but  that  highest  adaptation  is  as  outlined 
above.  The  heavy  breeds  will  be  kept  with  much  less 

445 


446  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

success  on  rugged  lands  than  will  attend  the  keeping  of 
light  breeds  on  level  lands. 

Lands  that  are  springy  or  that  are  saturated  with 
water  near  the  surface  for  any  considerable  period  dur- 
ing the  season  of  grazing  are  ill  adapted  to  the  keeping 
of  sheep.  They  produce  grazing  too  watery  to  meet  the 
needs  of  sheep,  and  on  such  grazing  parasites  are  much 
more  numerous,  as  a  rule,  than  on  other  grazing.  Wet 
ground  also  favors  the  increase  of  foot  rot.  Sheep  that 
are  maintained  in  any  considerable  degree  on  such  pas- 
ture will  deteriorate  rapidly.  This  does  not  mean,  how- 
ever, that  they  cannot  be  maintained  successfully  on  low 
lands,  even  on  marsh  lands  that  have  been  thoroughly 
drained,  a  fact  illustrated  in  the  success  that  attends  the 
breeding  of  Romney  Marsh  sheep  in  Kent,  England. 

Level  lands  are  usually  more  productive  than  those 
that  are  rolling.  Hence  the  large  breeds  can  get  food  on 
these  with  less  effort  than  on  rolling  lands  where  the 
vegetation  is  less  abundant.  The  middle  breeds  can 
gather  food  with  less  effort  on  rolling  lands  than  on 
mountain  pastures,  where  the  grazing  is  less  plentiful.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  the  more  abundant  the  grazing 
and  the  less  the  distance  traveled  by  the  sheep  when 
satisfying  their  hunger,  the  larger  may  be  the  sheep  so 
grazed ;  and  the  more  sparse  the  pastures,  and  the  greater 
the  distance  to  be  traveled  by  the  sheep  when  satisfying 
their  needs,  the  smaller  may  be  the  sheep  so  grazed.  It 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  size  of  the  sheep 
kept  shall  be  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  grazing. 
Even  on  level  lands  where  the  production  is  sparse,  the 
heavy  breeds  should  not  be  kept,  as  they  are  ill  fitted  to 
stand  the  strain  of  the  travel  called  for  when  seeking  food. 

The  character  of  the  water  supply  is  supremely  im- 
portant in  the  pastures  and  in  the  sheds,  but  especially 
in  the  former,  as  shown  in  Chapter  XV.  One  reason  for 
the  greater  freedom  from  disease  with  she^ p  grazed  on 
rolling  pastures  arises  from  their  freedom,  as  a  rule,  from 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING   IT  447 

stagnant  waters,  which  are  so  fruitful  usually  in  what 
may  be  termed  the  seed  germs  of  parasitic  diseases.  The 
aim  should  be  at  all  times  to  furnish  sheep  with  living 
water,  whatever  may  be  the  source  from  which  it  comes. 

The  hazard  from  such  predatory  animals  as  wolves 
and  dogs  should  be  well  considered  by  those  who  pro- 
pose to  engage  in  sheep  husbandry.  Where  such  hazard 
exists,  the  means  for  protection  and  the  cost  of  it  should 
be  taken  into  account.  These  have  been  discussed  at 
some  length  in  Chapter  XVIII. 

The  question  of  natural  protection  is  always  impor- 
tant in  relation  to  sheep  husbandry.  In  some  instances 
it  relates  to  shielding  the  animals  from  excessive  cold,  in  yet 
others  from  excessive  wind,  and  yet  again  from  excessive 
rains.  Nor  should  the  cost  of  furnishing  artificial  protection 
be  overlooked.  These  have  been  already  dwelt  upon  in 
Chapter  XVI. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  consideration  of  environ- 
ment, is  that  of  proximity  to  market  when  milk  lambs 
are  to  be  grown,  but  this  is  not  so  important  when  the 
lambs  are  to  be  carried  through  the  season  and  fattened. 
Its  importance  grows  less  as  the  wool  product  becomes 
relatively  more  important  than  the  mutton  product.  Of 
course,  on  distant  ranges  proximity  to  market  becomes 
impossible,  at  least  in  many  instances. 

The  consideration  of  food  supplies  should  be  well 
weighed.  In  some  instances  this  involves  only  the  ques- 
tion of  pasture,  summer  and  winter.  In  others  it  involves 
the  question  of  grazing  in  summer  and  coarse  fodder,  as 
hay,  for  winter.  In  yet  others  it  involves  the  question  of 
grazing,  providing  coarse  fodders  and  also  concentrates. 
The  question  of  grazing  alone  is  involved  only  in  mild 
climates;  that  of  grazing  and  coarse  fodders  where  the 
sheep  are  grown  under  extensive  conditions  and  finished 
somewhere  else ;  and  that  of  grazing,  coarse  fodders  and 
concentrates  where  the  conditions  are  intensive. 

Establishing  a  pure-bred  flock — Many  farmers  may 


448  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

succeed  reasonably  well  in  growing  a  flock  of  grade  sheep 
where  careful  attention  is  given  to  the  work.  A  much 
smaller  number  will  succeed  in  growing  pure  breds,  as 
the  breeding  of  the  latter  calls  for  more  skill  than  the 
breeding  of  the  former.  Only  one  here  and  there  among 
those  who  breed  pure  breds  will  attain  that  measure  of 
success  which  commands  attention  far  and  near,  because 
of  the  high  skill  that  must  be  present  in  order  to  attain 
such  an  end.  The  breeding  of  pure  breds  should  be  en- 
tered upon  with  much  caution.  It  is  at  least  questionable 
if  the  work  should  be  engaged  in  by  any  who  have  not 
had  previous  experience  in  growing  or  caring  for  sheep. 
If  such  persons  do  engage  in  breeding  pure  breds,  it 
should  be  in  a  small  way  at  first,  because  of  the  hazard 
involved.  This,  however,  does  not  apply  to  men  with 
ample  capital  and  who  intrust  the  work  in  a  great  meas- 
ure to  an  experienced  shepherd.  Those  who  have  made  a 
marked  success  of  breeding  grades  will  generally  make  a 
success  of  breeding  pure  breds. 

When  determining  the  choice  of  the  breed  that  is 
to  be  bred,  considerations  such  as  relate  to  environment 
and  the  disposal  of  the  sheep  are  all  important.  In  some 
instances  environment  will  admit  of  the  choice  of  one 
among  a  number  of  breeds,  in  other  instances  such  choice 
is  very  restricted.  Under  average  farm  conditions,  where 
the  lands  are  undulating  and  the  production  is  fair,  almost 
any  of  the  breeds  of  sheep  may  be  kept  with  a  reasonable 
measure  of  success.  But  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to 
introduce  the  heavy  breeds  on  to  pastures  that  are  sparse 
and  where  the  conditions  generally  are  of  the  rugged 
type.  But  few  breeds  of  sheep  can  be  produced  at  their 
best  where  field  roots  and  concentrates  are  not  furnished. 

Before  decision  is  reached  as  to  the  breed  that  shall 
be  grown,  the  probable  demand  for  good  animals  of  the 
breed  should  be  weighed.  Some  breeds  are  almost  uni- 
versally popular,  as  the  Shropshire.  Some  are  only  popu- 
lar in  certain  areas,  as  the  Southdown.  Some  are  kept 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK  AND   IMPROVING   IT  449 

chiefly  to  supply  rams  for  certain  conditions,  as  when 
Lincolns  furnish  these  to  influence  the  character  of  the 
fleece  under  semi-range  conditions.  The  men  are  rare 
who  can  force  popularity,  as  it  were,  upon  a  community 
where  the  breed  has  not  been  popular  heretofore.  When 
the  environment  and  the  outlook  for  the  successful  dis- 
posal of  the  increase  are  both  in  unison  with  the  prefer- 
ence which  the  breeder  has  for  a  certain  breed,  he  is  so 
far  fortunate,  as  he  can  then  bring  to  his  work  an  enthusi- 
asm that  would  not  exist  to  the  same  extent  when  breed- 
ing sheep  of  some  other  breed.  But  natural  preference 
should  never  be  allowed  to  outweigh  the  considerations 
mentioned. 

The  breeders  of  pure  breds  will  be  greatly  handi- 
capped in  their  work  if  they  are  located  distant  from  a 
railroad  station.  When  thus  located,  buyers  are  less 
likely  to  visit  them,  and  the  labor  and  time  involved  in 
making  shipments  is  greatly  increased.  Distance  from  a 
railroad  station  beyond  a  certain  limit  in  this  fast  age 
would  almost  certainly  bring  failure  to  the  enterprise, 
though  in  other  respects  it  should  be  well  conducted.  Be- 
cause other  breeders  may  be  already  established  in  a 
neighborhood  who  breed  the  same  kind  of  stock  is  no  rea- 
son why  the  beginner  should  not  breed  that  class  of  stock. 
It  furnishes  a  strong  reason  why  he  should  do  so,  as  those 
looking  for  animals  of  that  particular  breed  will  be  more 
ready  to  visit  a  locality  with  several  breeders  of  a  breed 
than  if  only  one  breeder  were  located  there,  because  it 
gives  them  an  opportunity  of  making  selection  in  the  line 
of  their  desires. 

It  is  greatly  important  that  the  foundation  animals 
shall  be  well  chosen.  They  should  not  only  be  correct 
in  regard  to  form  for  the  breed,  but  also  in  all  the  lead-  - 
ing  characteristics  that  appertain  to  it.  They  should  also 
be  correct  in  pedigree..  Some  beginners  introduce  founda- 
tion stock  indifferent  as  to  form  and  with  no  special  merit 
in  the  ancestral  lines.  They  do  so  because  these  may  be 


450  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

obtained  at  low  cost.  With  such  foundation  stock  a  high 
standard  of  excellence  will  not  be  quickly  reached.  But 
the  opposite  extreme  should  be  avoided  of  purchasing 
animals  that  have  been  fitted  for  the  fairs  and  shown  at 
the  same.  Such  animals  breed  less  freely  than  those  kept 
under  conditions  less  forced,  and  on  ordinary  food  they 
will  not  retain  the  bloom  that  should  characterize  the 
members  of  a  well-kept  flock. 

The  essentials  as  to  form  are  given  in  the  book,  "The 
Study  of  Breeds,"  by  the  author,  and  will  not  be  repeated 
here.  They  may  also  be  obtained  from  the  accredited 
standard  of  excellence  or  scale  of  points,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  for  each  breed,  from  whatsoever  source  it 
may  be  derived.  When  selecting  the  females,  similarity 
in  type  should  be  sought,  and  the  male  should  be  at  least 
a  good  specimen  of  the  breed,  and  preferably  line  bred. 
The  most  suitable  type  of  breeding  ewes  will  probably 
be  obtained  from  rams  not  extremely  masculine  in  char- 
acteristics, but  later  those  characteristics  should  be  highly 
developed. 

Every  possible  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
health  of  the  foundation  stock.  It  would  probably  be 
correct  to  say  that,  under  many  conditions,  several  of  the 
most  troublesome  or  fatal  ailments  that  afflict  sheep 
would  never  be  present  were  these  not  brought  to  the 
farm  or  ranch  in  the  foundation  animals  or  in  purchases 
made  subsequently.  These  include  stomach  worms,  tape- 
worms and  nodule  disease.  No  pains  should  be  spared 
in  ascertaining  the  facts  about  the  previous  history  of 
the  flocks  with  reference  to  visitations  from  parasites. 
The  presence  or  absence  of  these  in  ewes  cannot  be  as- 
certained from  the  appearance  of  mature  individuals  in 
the  flock.  When  time  has  made  it  apparent  that  none 
of  these  ailments  are  present,  the  aim  should  be  to  avoid 
the  introduction  of  animals  of  the  breed  from  outside 
sources.  Those  deficient  in  fleece,  and  in  the  wool  char- 
acteristics proper  to  the  breed,  should  not  be  chosen,  and 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING    IT  451 

likewise  those  with  dark  or  black  spots  in  the  wool  or 
that  have  a  pale,  lifeless-looking  skin,  which  points  to  a 
delicate  constitution.  The  skin  should  be  of  a  beautiful 
rich  pink  or  rose-colored  tint. 

The  aim  should  be  to  secure  foundation  stocks  from 
reputable  breeders,  that  no  shadow  may  rest  upon  the 
purity  of  the  breeding.  The  more  outstanding  the  repu- 
tation of  the  breeder,  the  easier  will  it  be  for  beginners  to 
make  sales  of  their  surplus  stock.  It  would  be  easy,  how- 
ever, to  pay  too  high  a  price  for  the  advantage  which 
such  reputation  would  bring.  When  the  requisite  essen- 
tials are  present,  the  nearer  that  the  animals  can  be  pur- 
chased to  the  place  where  they  are  to  be  maintained  the 
better  it  is,  as  the  changed  conditions  are  then  less  vio- 
lent. Inexperienced  beginners  incur  much  hazard  when 
they  begin  by  importing  costly  animals  from  other  coun- 
tries. 

Establishing  a  flock  of  grades — When  establishing  a 
flock  of  grades,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
form  of  the  females  chosen.  The  essentials  of  form  are 
the  same  virtually  as  for  ewes  devoted  to  the  breeding 
of  milk  lambs  (see  page  242).  Any  evidences  of  delicacy 
should  result  in  the  rejection  of  such  ewes  for  breeding. 
The  previous  history  of  the  flock  as  to  the  presence  of 
parasitic  diseases  should  be  carefully  looked  into  before 
making  purchases,  as  in  the  case  of  pure  breds.  But 
when  the  ewes  selected  are  purchased  at  the  stock  yards, 
such  information  may  be  unobtainable.  As  in  the  case 
of  purebreds,  when  time  has  evidenced  that  the  flock  is  free 
from  such  diseases,  the  aim  should  be  to  avoid  introduc- 
ing other  females  in  addition  to  those  produced  by  the 
flock. 

The  blood  elements  possessed  by  the  females,  though 
not  entirely  unimportant  are  probably  of  less  importance 
than  correct  form.  The  presence  of  many  blood  elements 
should  not  be  regarded  as  an  objection  when  choosing 
foundation  ewes.  Usually,  the  more  mixed  their  breed- 


452  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

ing,  the  more  quickly  will  improvement  be  effected,  when 
properly  mated  with  prepotent  rams,  as  such  dilution  of 
blood  elements  makes  it  more  plastic,  and,  therefore, 
more  susceptible  to  the  influences  exerted  by  the  more 
prepotent  parent.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  found 
in  those  instances  in  which  the  females  are  already  graded 
more  or  less  by  descent  from  pure  sires  of  the  breed  from 
which  these  are  to  be  chosen  in  future  breeding.  Com- 
mencing with  very  common  females  of  mixed  breeding 
and  using  only  pure-bred  males  in  succession  of  only  one 
and  the  same  breed,  in  four  or  five  generations,  the  aver- 
age of  the  animals  for  meat-making  should  fully  equal 
the  average  of  the  breed  from  which  the  sires  have  been 
chosen.  The  improvement  or  change  in  wool  production 
will  be  less  rapid.  Improvement  through  grading  is  dis- 
cussed by  the  author  in  Chapter  XXVI  of  the  book  "Ani- 
mal Breeding." 

The  foundation  ewes  for  grade  flocks  may  usually 
be  obtained  at  the  stock  yards,  where  a  very  considerable 
trade  is  conducted  in  supplies  of  sheep  for  feeding.  As 
a  rule  they  can  be  more  cheaply  obtained  in  autumn.  The 
major  portion  come  from  the  range.  They  are  generally 
of  mixed  blood  elements,  but  Merino  blood  more  com- 
monly predominates,  which  is  so  far  a  guaranty  of  rug- 
gedness.  Such  ewes  are  usually  healthy,  but  this  fact 
does  not  certainly  assure  the  buyer  that  they  are  abso- 
lutely free  from  parasites.  The  aim  should  be  to  buy 
ewes  whose  teeth  have  not  been  seriously  injured  through 
age. 

Foundation  stocks  may  also  be  obtained  in  many  in- 
stances from  farmers  who  are  breeders  of  grade  sheep. 
When  thus  purchased,  the  previous  history  of  the  flock 
in  relation  to  disease  may  be  obtainable.  The  importance 
of  obtaining  such  information  cannot  be  overestimated. 

The  sires  used  in  grade  flocks — The  sires  used  in 
grade  flocks  should  in  all  instances  be  purely  bred  where 
it  is  possible  to  secure  them.  They  should  be  purely  bred, 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING   IT  453 

for  the  reason  that  it  is  only  rams  thus  bred  that  are 
prepotent.  Cross-bred  or  grade  rams  will  be  less  potent 
in  the  character  of  their  transmission,  because  of  the  ab- 
sence of  fixedness  in  their  dominant  characters.  The 
transmission  from  such  rams  will  be  variable  in  propor- 
tion as  their  blood  elements  are  mixed,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  saying  in  proportion  as  they  are  diluted  and  weak- 
ened. When  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  pure-bred  rams, 
the  higher  the  grade  of  the  rams  chosen,  the  better.  The 
practice  of  choosing  grade  sires  within  the  flock  is  to  be 
deprecated.  If  long  continued  it  will  certainly  result  in 
lowering  the  standard  of  the  flock,  since  it  is  in-and-in- 
breeding  that  extends  to  all  the  animals  which  compose 
the  flock.  In  such  instances  the  mating  will  be  more  or 
less  faulty  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  conformation, 
and  it  will  certainly  result  in  retrogression. 

Prominent  among  the  factors  that  should  influence 
determination  as  to  which  breed  the  rams  shall  be  chosen 
from  are  environment  and  the  demands  of  the  market. 
The  exposure,  the  grazing  and  the  other  food  supplies 
should  be  considered  in  relation  to  environment.  Only 
rugged  sheep,  as  those  possessed  of  much  Merino  blood, 
should  be  kept  on  the  ranges,  and  only  mountain  breeds 
on  mountain  lands.  Only  light  breeds  should  be  kept 
on  rugged  and  sparse  pastures,  and  breeds  that  naturally 
produce  lambs  early  should  not  be  allowed  to  do  so 
where  succulence  cannot  be  supplied  to  the  dams. 

Dominance  in  the  object  for  which  the  sheep  are 
kept,  the  most  suitable  size  of  lamb  and  the  season  when 
it  is  wanted  should  be  considered  in  relation  to  market 
demands.  When  wool  is  the  dominant  object  sought, 
Merino  blood  should,  as  a  rule,  be  prominently  in  evi- 
dence. When  mutton  is  the  chief  consideration,  rams 
should  be  chosen  from  the  mutton  breeds ;  when  the  dual 
quality  or  mutton  and  wool  are  both  sought,  as  the  mar- 
kets run  today,  these  will  be  secured  in  the  highest  degree 
from  choosing  rams  of  one  or  another  of  the  middle-wool 


454  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

breeds.  The  Southdown  pure-bred  sire  has  been  found 
to  produce  lambs  highly  adapted  to  present  market  con- 
ditions, which  give  the  preference  to  lambs  that  reach 
the  market  in  the  autumn,  that  weigh  less  than  100 
pounds  alive.  Lambs  of  good  finish  that  weigh  not  more 
than  80  or  90  pounds  are  preferred  to  those  that  are 
heavier. 

The  season  at  which  the  lambs  are  to  reach  the  mar- 
ket should  also  be  carefully  considered.  Winter  lambs 
come  most  readily  through  the  use  of  Dorset  sires.  Early 
spring  lambs  are,  as  a  rule,  most  easily  obtained  from 
ewes,  in  which  Merino  blood  is  well  represented.  Rea- 
sonably early  lambs,  possessed  of  much  size,  may  be  most 
surely  obtained  by  the  use  of  Hampshire  sires. 

Should  the  flock  be  high  grade,  the  aim  should  be 
to  use  sires  of  the  breed  which  have  furnished  the  domi- 
nant blood  elements  to  the  females.  The  results  from 
such  breeding  are  more  certain  than  they  would  be  should 
sires  be  used  from  some  other  breed.  For  instance,  should 
the  Shropshire  blood  be  dominant  in  a  flock  of  Shropshire 
grades,  the  results  from  the  use  of  Shropshire  sires  on 
these  will  be  more  certain  than  those  that  would  follow 
the  use  of  Lincoln  sires. 

But  in  some  instances  the  demands  of  the  market 
may  call  for  the  use  of  a  sire  possessed  of  blood  elements 
differing  from  those  that  dominate  in  the  ewes. 

The  mistake  of  using  pure-bred  rams  of  inferior  in- 
dividuality, even  on  grade  flocks,  should  be  sedulously 
avoided,  lest  the  character  of  the  transmission  should  be 
similar.  While  the  breeders  of  grade  flocks  would  not  be 
justified  in  paying  such  prices  for  rams  as  are  sometimes 
paid  by  the  breeders  of  high-class  pure-breds,  the  aim 
should  be  to  use  those  only  that  are  possessed  of  good 
individuality. 

The  requisites  as  to  form  and  covering  in  a  good  sire 
for  even  a  flock  of  grades  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 
He  should  possess  compactness  of  form,  a  suitable  cover- 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING   IT  455 

ing  of  wool  and  evidences  of  vigor.  The  first  includes 
a  body  wide,  deep  and  round,  supported  by  short,  straight 
limbs.  The  second  includes  a  fleece  uniform  in  length, 
fineness,  strength  and  density,  and  evenly  distributed  over 
the  body.  The  third  includes  much  width  and  fullness 
of  chest,  a  strong  back,  a  powerful  and  short  neck,  a 
strong  and  wide  head,  a  pink  skin  and  an  active  carriage. 
Other  requisites  are  more  or  less  important.  There  are 
also  peculiarities  pertaining  to  individual  breeds  that 
should  not  be  overlooked.  These  may  all  be  learned 
through  a  study  of  the  standards  of  excellence  pertaining 
to  each  breed. 

Fancy  points,  as  the  degree  of  the  covering  on  the 
head  and  legs,  are  of  much  less  importance  when  choos- 
ing rams  to  head  grade  flocks  than  when  choosing  them 
to  head  those  that  are  pure.  Good,  strong  and  useful 
rams  for  grade  flocks  may  in  some  instances  be  obtained 
cheaply,  because  of  some  slight  deficiency  or  superfluity 
that  would  unfit  them  for  service  in  a  valuable  pure-bred 
flock. 

The  improvement  of  the  flock — It  would  seem  correct 
to  say  that  absolute  perfection  is  never  reached  in  any 
flock ;  howsoever  good  it  may  be  as  a  flock  or  in  the  in- 
dividuals that  represent  it,  there  is  always  room  for  fur- 
ther improvement.  In  a  large  majority  of  instances  there 
is  room  for  wide  improvement,  and  it  ought  to  be  the  aim 
of  every  owner  of  a  flock  to  reach  the  maximum  of  im- 
provement attainable  under  his  conditions.  The  leading 
factors  concerned  in  improvement  are:  (i)  The  sires 
used;  (2)  selection;  and  (3)  food. 

The  sires  exert  or  should  exert  an  influence  far  reach- 
ing in  the  improvement  of  form  and  covering  and  in 
bringing  about  uniformity  in  the  flock.  This  improve- 
ment does  not  result  from  any  superior  influence  pos- 
sessed by  the  sire  by  virtue  of  his  sex.  It  is  the  outcome 
of  his  superior  prepotency,  and  where  this  is  wanting 
these  results  will  not  follow.  The  sire  also  exerts  an 


456 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING   IT  457 

important  influence  on  stamina  in  the  flock,  on  prolifi- 
cacy and  on  maturity. 

Selection  is  an  indirect  rather  than  a  direct  agent  in 
effecting  improvement.  It  does  not  directly  improve  the 
individual  as  the  sire  does  or  as  food  does,  but  it  makes 
further  improvement  possible  in  the  individuals  that  shall 
be  born  in  the  flock,  through  discarding  the  inferior  and 
retaining  the  superior  for  future  breeding.  It  thus  aids 
materially  in  effecting  improvement  and  in  bringing  about 
a  higher  uniformity. 

Food  effects  improvement  by  the  direct  influence 
which  it  exerts  upon  the  entire  organism  of  the  individ- 
uals in  the  flock.  It  powerfully  influences  size,  wool  pro- 
duction and  stamina  and  it  exerts  a  far-reaching  influence 
on  the  functions  pertaining  to  reproduction  and  the  sus- 
tenance of  the  progeny.  It  is  the  supplement  and  also 
the  complement  of  the  other  agencies  used  in  effecting 
improvement,  and  unless  it  is  furnished  in  liberal  supply 
all  attempts  to  improve  the  flock  will  fail. 

Improvement  through  the  sires — As  already  inti- 
mated, improvement  coming  from  the  sires  arises  from 
their  potency  in  the  transmission  of  desirable  qualities. 
Of  course,  in  breeding  pure  breds,  the  sires  will  all  be 
chosen  from  the  same  breed.  In  breeding  grades,  the 
choice  of  the  breed  from  which  the  sires  shall  be  taken 
rests  entirely  with  the  owner.  Some  of  the  owners  of 
grade  flocks  select  the  successive  sires  used  from  the  same 
pure  breed,  others  select  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter  period, 
first  from  one  breed  and  then  another.  The  former 
method  is  very  much  superior  to  the  latter.  By  the  first 
method  improvement  will  be  continuous  until  the  average 
of  the  animals  of  the  flock  reaches  the  level  in  their  individ- 
uality of  the  average  of  the  breed  from  which  the  sires 
have  been  chosen.  This  method  of  breeding  makes  more 
and  more  stable  the  properties  possessed  by  each  succeed- 
ing generation.  By  the  second  method  the  tendency  is  to 
render  more  and  more  unstable  the  elements  of  inherit- 


458  MANAGEMENT    AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

ance  and,  consequently  to  render  their  transmission  more 
uncertain. 

The  time  called  for  to  bring  grade  sheep  up  to  the 
level  of  the  flock  from  which  the  sires  are  chosen  will 
depend  to  some  extent  on  the  blood  lines  possessed  when 
the  upgrading  begins,  and  to  a  greater  extent  on  the  pre- 
potency of  the  sires.  It  would  seem  correct  to  say  that 
in  no  instance  would  more  than  five  generations  of  such 
breeding  be  necessary  to  effect  such  improvement  in  the 
animal  form,  and  in  some  instances  three  generations 
would  suffice.  For  making  meat,  the  grades  thus  im- 
proved would  probably  average  better  than  the  pure 
breds,  as  the  presence  of  alien  blood  brings  with  it  in 
many  instances  renovating  power.  Many  generations  of 
such  breeding  would  be  called  for  to  make  the  wool  fibers 
resemble  exactly  those  of  the  breed  from  which  the  sires 
have  come.  Many  generations  would  also  be  necessary 
to  make  transmission  as  certain  from  animals  thus  up- 
graded as  from  sires  of  the  breed  used  in  improving  them. 

The  rapid  improvement  that  may  be  effected  in  the 
meat-making  qualities  of  grade  sheep  finds  illustration  in 
a  certain  line  of  experimental  work  conducted  at  the 
Minnesota  Experimental  Station,  under  the  direction  of 
the  author.  Ewes  were  purchased  of  the  commonest 
types.  Some  were  purchased  at  the  stock  yards  at  South 
St.  Paul,  and  some  from  farmers.  The  former  came 
from  the  western  ranges.  The  breeding,  especially  of 
those  bred  on  the  ranges,  was  very  much  mixed.  There 
were  evidences  in  their  make-up  of  the  blood  of  the 
coarse  wool,  the  middle  wool  and  the  fine  wool  breeds.  In 
many  of  them  the  evidences  of  Merino  blood  were  dom- 
inant. Dark-faced  sires,  chiefly  Shropshire,  were  used 
upon  them  in  some  instances  for  one,  and  in  others  for 
two  generations.  A  number  of  the  females  were  then 
selected  in  the  autumn  of  1900.  These  were  mated  with 
a  well-bred  and  well-chosen  Southdown  ram  and  a  num- 
ber of  the  lambs  were  prepared  for  exhibition  at  the  In- 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING    IT  459 

ternational  Fair  held  in  Chicago  the  following  year.  They 
were  awarded  champion  honors  for  the  best  pen  of  five 
lambs  in  the  grade  classes  in  competition  open  to  the 
world.  One  of  the  number  was  awarded  first  honors  in 
the  dead  meat  class  at  the  same  fair.  Thus  quickly  may 
improvement  be  affected  by  judicious  upgrading. 

It  may  not  be  correct  to  say  that  in-breeding  should 
not  be  practiced  to  any  extent,  but  if  practiced  it  should 
be  with  caution  and  the  exercise  of  much  good  judgment. 
When  the  mating  is  correct,  good  qualities  will  be  in- 
tensified, but  when  incorrect,  those  that  are  undesirable 
will  likewise  be  intensified.  The  mission  of  in-and-in- 
breeding  is  to  aid  in  the  establishment  of  breeds, 
rather  than  to  aid  in  the  establishment  of  flocks  from 
breeds  already  established.  With  properly  chosen  sires, 
in-and-in-breeding  is  safer  in  grade  than  in  pure-bred 
flocks,  as  the  former  are  usually  possessed  of  more  of  the 
elements  of  ruggedness  than  the  latter  at  the  time  of  the 
establishment  of  the  flock.  But  even  in  grade  flocks  it  is 
of  questionable  utility  unless  when  the  flock  is  being  es- 
tablished, because  of  the  hazard  incurred.  The  evils  to 
be  feared  are  loss  of  size  and  stamina,  and  also  more  or 
less  prolificacy.  But  it  may  not  only  be  allowable,  but 
judicious,  to  use  the  first  sire  chosen  on  his  progeny. 

Improvement  through  selection — Selection  in  a  flock 
has  reference,  first,  to  the  retention  of  lambs  that  are  to 
be  used  for  future  breeding,  and,  second,  to  the  rejection 
of  ewes  that  are  not  desirable  any  longer  because  of  some 
defect  or  because  of  age.  The  ewe  lambs  to  be  retained 
should,  oT  course,  be  the  tops  of  the  flock.  They  should, 
of  course,  be  chosen  on  the  basis  of  size,  form,  covering 
and  uniformity  in  body  and  fleece.  The  selection  should 
be  rigid,  as  in  no  other  way  can  a  high  standard  be  real- 
ized. It  would  seem  safe  to  say  that  the  measure  of  the 
estimate  put  upon  a  flock  by  visitors  is  the  extent  to 
which  inferior  specimens  are  absent,  rather  than  the  ex- 
tent to  which  superior  specimens  are  present. 


460  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 

All  females  should  be  rejected  for  future  breeding  that 
are  off  in  form,  that  have  any  physical  defect,  that  have 
proved  shy  breeders  or  poor  nurses  and  that  are  begin- 
ning to  lose  or  are  soon  to  lose  their  teeth  through  age. 
Ewes  apparently  well  chosen  as  lambs  lose  form  to  some 
extent  in  some  instances  as  they  mature,  and  should  be 
discarded,  as  they  so  far  mar  uniformity  in  the  flock  and 
may  also  transmit  this  same  defect.  Physical  defects  may 
relate  to  such  happenings  as  injury  to  the  udder,  which 
may  impair  or  destroy  its  function,  to  a  tendency  to  cast 
the  uterus  when  the  lambs  are  born  and  to  some  ex- 
crescences on  the  skin  that  are  unsightly,  also  to  injury 
to  the  limbs.  Shy  breeders  are  unprofitable,  as  when  they 
fail  to  breed  the  only  return  for  the  year  is  the  wool, 
and  when  they  do  breed,  they  may  transmit  the  same 
characteristic  of  shy  breeding  to  their  progeny.  Ewes 
that  are  aging  are  more  expensive  to  feed  than  others, 
produce  less  wool,  do  not  feed  their  lambs  as  well  and 
mar  the  appearance  of  the  flock. 

The  weaning  season  is  the  best  season  to  set  them 
aside  for  being  turned  off,  as  they  may  then  be  prepared 
for  market  and  disposed  of  before  the  closing  in  of  the 
winter.  Where  flocks  are  large,  the  plan  of  promptly 
marketing  ewes  to  be  discarded  as  soon  as  the  reason  for 
such  action  is  first  noticed  is  to  be  commended.  If  this 
is  not  done,  these  ewes  in  some  instances  will  be  over- 
looked and  left  in  the  flock.  Any  kind  of  mark  that  will 
readily  indicate  such  animals  will,  of  course,  suffice,  as. 
for  instance,  stamping  coloring  matter  on  some  part  of 
the  body. 

One  would  imagine  at  first  thought  that  where  the 
culling  is  close  and  continued  from  year  to  year,  the  time 
would  come  when  culls  would  not  appear  and  that  the 
necessity  for  culling  the  lambs  at  least  would  be  no  longer 
necessary.  This  hope,  should  it  be  cherished,  will  never 
be  fully  realized.  The  principle  of  variation  is  operative 
as  well  as  the  principle  that  "like  begets  like,"  and  some 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING   IT  461 

of  the  variations  are  downward.  This  happens  in  the 
best-regulated  and  best-managed  flocks,  but  the  fre- 
quency with  which  culls  appear  decreases  measurably 
with  increase  in  the  perfection  of  the  management.  Varia- 
tions in  the  degree  of  the  vigor  possessed  by  the  parents 
at  generation  and  during  pregnancy,  lead  to  variations  in 
the  progeny.  Other  influences  also  are  probably  similarly 
operative.  The  time  will  never  come,  therefore,  in  any 
flock  when  the  necessity  for  rejecting  and  discarding  will 
no  more  exist. 

Improvement  through  food — Attention  to  the  food 
requirements  cannot  be  too  closely  or  too  constantly  ex- 
ercised. The  wisest  choice  of  sires  and  the  closest  and 
most  intelligent  selection  will  be  in  vain  unless  the  food 
fed  is  such  as  will  maintain  a  high  standard  of  improve- 
ment. If  food  is  to  effect  commensurate  improvement, 
it  must  be  adapted:  (i)  To  the  needs  of  the  sheep;  (2) 
to  the  needs  of  the  breed;  and  (3)  to  the  requirements 
of  the  breeding. 

It  would  be  correct  to  say  that  some  foods  given  alone  or 
in  combination  are  adapted  in  a  general  way  to  the  feeding 
of  all  classes  of  sheep,  but  it  would  not  be  correct  to  say 
that  such  adaptation  is  exactly  equal  in  the  different 
classes  of  sheep. 

With  sheep  maintained  for  different  uses,  or  with 
sheep  of  different  breeds,  with  reference  to  the  individual 
sheep,  the  food  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  meet  its  needs 
at  different  stages  of  development  and  under  different 
conditions  as  to  use,  and  it  should  be  of  a  character  that 
will  help  to  maintain  much  of  uniformity  in  condition 
throughout  the  year.  Young  lambs,  for  instance,  must 
have  the  best  class  of  food  given  to  the  flock.  After  wean- 
ing, they  should  be  given  the  preference  in  pastures  and 
an  amount  of  grain  that  would  probably  be  wasteful  if 
fed  to  nature  sheep  at  that  season.  Pregnant  ewes  should 
be  given  foods  that  will  produce  much  milk,  while  shear- 
lings not  pregnant  may  thrive  on  food  different  in  kind 


462  MANAGEMENT  AND   FEEDING  OF  SHEEP 

and  less  costly.  To  cover  this  question  fully  would  mean 
going  into  all  the  details  of  feeding.  It  can  only  be  said, 
further,  at  this  time  that  if  the  food  is  to  prove  an  effec- 
tive means  of  improving  flocks,  it  should  be  given  so  as 
to  best  meet  the  needs  of  the  individual  sheep  under  all 
the  conditions  of  development  and  maintenance  to  which 
it  may  be  subjected,  and  it  should  be  given,  as  far  as  may 
be  practicable,  to  maintain  as  much  of  equilibrium  in  con- 
dition as  may  be  attainable,  otherwise  the  character  of 
the  fleece  will  suffer. 

That  the  difference,  to  some  extent  at  least,  in  the 
food  requisites  for  different  breeds  must  be  given  some 
recognition,  will  be  apparent  from  the  influence  that  food 
has  exercised  in  the  evolution  of  the  various  breeds. 
Where  the  food  furnished  differs  materially  from  that 
given  under  the  conditions  of  environment  that  evolved 
the  breed,  modifications  will  follow.  These  will  be  ad- 
verse should  the  food  supplies  be  lower  than  breed  char- 
acteristics call  for  to  sustain  them  in  equilibrium ;  and 
they  will  effect  improvement  in  some  respects  if  higher 
than  the  breed  characteristics  have  previously  called  for. 
Thus  it  is  that  heavy  breeds  of  sheep  retrograde  if  put  on 
rations  that  will  maintain  equilibrium  in  the  small  breeds, 
and  thus  it  is  that  the  latter  improve  in  some  respects 
when  the  food  is  an  improvement  on  the  food  consumed 
while  the  breed  was  being  evolved. 

The  food  fed  should  meet  the  needs  of  the  sheep  as 
modified  by  breeding.  Suppose  a  large  sheep  is  crossed 
upon  a  small  one,  the  size  of  the  progeny  will  be  in- 
creased as  compared  with  the  size  of  the  dams  which  pro- 
duced it.  This  will  mean  that  food  supplies  that  may 
have  met  the  needs  of  the  dams  will  not  meet  the  needs 
of  the  progeny.  For  the  latter  they  must  be  more  lib- 
eral. This  explains  why  increased  size,  especially  in 
crossing  and  grading,  results  in  failure  when  the  food 
given  is  not  sufficiently  liberal. 

When  crossing  is  legitimate — Ordinarily  the  crossing 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING   IT  463 

of  pure  breeds,  especially  when  they  are  pedigreed  and  a 
record  kept  of  the  pedigrees,  is  not  to  be  commended. 
Their  value  is  such  in  a  large  majority  of  instances  as  to 
make  such  crossing  unwise.  The  individuals  of  the  breed 
in  the  pure  form  are  usually  worth  more  than  the  progeny 
obtained  from  crossing  them.  But  there  may  be  instances 
when  such  crossing  is  admissible.  Superior  specimens  are 
sometimes  obtained  thus  for  exhibition  purposes.  Such 
crossing  as  may  be  necessary  to  meet  exhibition  require- 
ments is  legitimate.  When  drafts  of  ewes  are  made  from 
the  mountain  breeds  with  a  view  to  send  them  to  the 
market,  it  is  usually  profitable  to  cross  them  with  males 
of  some  larger  breed  after  they  have  been  put  on  more 
productive  pastures  and  to  sell  them  and  their  progeny 
after  they  have  been  made  ready  for  the  block  through 
high  feeding.  The  same  is  true  in  some  instances  of 
Merino  ewes. 

The  attempt  to  improve  through  crossing  where 
herds  are  involved  should  not  usually  be  carried  beyond 
the  first  cross.  The  result  from  a  second  cross  and  also 
from  succeeding  crosses  are  frequently  disappointing. 
This  arises  from  the  tendency  to  reversion  in  such  lines 
of  breeding.  The  tendency  to  reversion  is  the  outcome 
possibly  of  antagonism  in  the  dominant  properties  in  the 
leading  blood  lines  for  supremacy. 

In  seeking  improvement  through  grading,  an  out- 
cross  may  be  used  in  some  instances  with  advantage,  and 
the  same  is  true  in  some  instances  of  breeds.  But  the 
nature  of  the  outcross  in  the  two  instances  is  different. 
In  the  first  instance  it  means  introducing  a  sire  of  a  differ- 
ent breed;  in  the  second,  it  means  introducing  a  sire  of 
the  same  breed  but  of  a  different  strain  of  blood  and  usu- 
ally from  an  outside  herd.  Action  in  the  first  instance 
may  result  in  improving  size  and  wool  production,  should 
these  fall  below  a  certain  standard.  But  in  such  instances 
it  will  usually  be  wise  policy  to  return  again  to  the  sires 
belonging  to  the  breed  from  which  they  were  chosen  pre- 


464  MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

viously.  The  outcross  in  such  instances  is  to  effect  a  pur- 
pose, and  when  that  purpose  is  attained,  as  it  usually 
is  in  a  single  outcross,  such  crossing  for  the  time  being 
should  cease.  Action  in  the  second  instance  aims  to  in- 
sure renovation  and  improved  stamina  when  indications 
of  deterioration  may  have  appeared.  These  outcrosses, 
however,  should  be  introduced  with  great  caution.  They 
should  only  be  made  in  the  flock  generally  after  their 
potency  has  been  proved  in  the  progeny  resulting  from 
the  use  of  the  sires  thus  brought  in  on  a  few  females  of 
the  flock. 

Breeding  for  single  or  twin  lambs — That  the  breed- 
ing may  influence  the  proportion  of  the  lambs  that  shall 
be  of  single  or  plural  birth,  must  be  conceded.  As  to  this 
there  cannot  be  any  room  for  a  difference  in  opinion,  but 
opinions  may  differ  with  reference  to  some  of  the  influ- 
ences which  bear  upon  this  question  and  the  part  which 
these  play  respectively.  It  would  seem  to  be  true  that 
the  difference  in  the  prolificacy  of  breeds  has  been 
brought  about  by  breeding,  accompanied  by  selection  and 
food. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  desirability  of  having  ewes 
produce  but  one  or  two  lambs  at  a  birth.  In  some  in- 
stances they  produce  three,  and  in  rare  instances  even 
more,  but  a  larger  number  than  three  is  not  desirable. 
The  ewe  furnishes  milk  from  but  two  teats,  hence  the 
lambs  do  not  share  equally  in  the  milk  produced,  nor  is 
one  ewe  capable  of  furnishing  all  the  milk  that  is  neces- 
sary to  grow  three  lambs  at  their  best. 

The  following  are  chief  among  the  arguments  in 
favor  of  the  production  of  single  lambs:  (i)  They  forge 
ahead  more  rapidly  when  young,  and  in  consequence  may 
be  marketed  at  an  earlier  age;  (2)  that  a  ewe  is  not  so 
capable  of  feeding  two  lambs  properly  as  of  feeding  but 
one;  hence  (3)  it  is  easier  to  maintain  a  high  standard 
of  development  in  flocks  in  which  single  lambs  are  the 
rule.  There  is  considerable  force  in  the  first  argument 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK  AND   IMPROVING   IT  465 

when  the  object  is  to  send  lambs  early  to  the  block,  or  to 
sell  them  for  breeding  while  yet  considered  lambs.  In 
the  second  argument  there  is  a  measure  of  truth,  as  it  is 
doubtless  true,  as  sheep  are  usually  cared  for,  that  better 
specimens  come,  on  the  whole,  from  the  ranks  of  single 
lambs  than  from  those  that  are  twins.  But  where  sheep 
are  cared  for  as  they  ought  to  be  it  has  been  found  quite 
possible  to  maintain  a  high  standard  of  excellence  in 
breeds  in  which  plural  births  are  numerous.  This  has 
been  amply  shown  in  the  history  of  the  Dorset  breed, 
and  also  in  the  Hampshires,  a  breed  of  large  size.  While 
the  third  argument  is  true,  it  does  not  follow,  as  just 
stated,  that  a  high  standard  cannot  be  maintained  when 
plural  births  are  numerous. 

The  chief  arguments  in  favor  of  plural  births  are: 
(i)  That  more  profit  will  ordinarily  result  when  these  are 
numerous  than  when  they,  are  infrequent;  and  (2)  that 
this  is  realized  or  may  be  realized  without  lowering  the 
standard  of  development.  In  both  arguments  there  is 
much  force.  The  value  of  the  dam  and  two  lambs  nursed 
by  her,  when  mature,  is  certainly  greater  than  a  ewe  and 
her  one  lamb,  the  development  being  equal  in  the  two 
instances.  The  development  of  the  twins  at  maturity 
may  be  fully  equal  to  that  of  the  single  lamb,  but  the  de- 
velopment of  the  former  will  not  be  equal  to  that  of  the 
latter  at  an  early  age.  It  would  seem  correct  to  say  that 
moderate  and  continuous  growth  will  produce  maximum 
development  fully  equal  to  that  resulting  from  rapid 
growth,  but  it  will  not  produce  it  so  quickly.  Where  win- 
ter lambs  are  grown  it  may  be  desirable  to  encourage  the 
production  of  single  lambs,  but  where  the  aim  is  to  grow 
sheep  for  the  lines  of  production  for  which  they  are  usu- 
ally grown,  the  production  of  twins  should  certainly  be 
encouraged. 

Breeding  may  be  made  to  encourage  the  production 
of  single  lambs  or  twins  through  selection  in  both  sire 
and  dam.  That  such  production  may  be  increased  in 


466  MANAGEMENT   AND   FEEDING   OF   SHEEP 

either  direction  through  the  choice  of  dams  has  been 
demonstrated  in  the  experience  of  many  breeders,  espe- 
cially when  increase  in  twins  has  been  sought.  Whether 
it  would  be  possible  to  so  enstamp  the  habit  of  producing 
twins  on  any  breed  to  the  extent  of  excluding  the  birth 
of  any  single  lambs,  has  not  been  demonstrated,  but  it 
would  seem  to  be  of  possible  attainment  through  the  con- 
tinuous selection  of  dams  and  sires  of  plural  birth.  That 
the  sire  influences  to  any  extent  the  numbers  produced  at 
a  birth  as  the  result  of  his  inheritance  has  been  disputed, 
and  experiments  to  determine  this  matter  beyond  possi- 
bility of  dispute  have  not  yet  been  forthcoming.  If, 
however,  it  is  true  that  the  sire  of  dairy  cattle  does  exer- 
cise an  influence  on  milk  production  in  his  progeny,  a  fact 
that  is  generally  accepted,  it  would  seem  reasonable  to 
believe  that  a  ram  would  influence  function  in  his  progeny 
with  reference  to  the  number  produced  at  a  birth.  It  has 
been  noticed  by  breeders  that  more  lambs  may  be  looked 
for  from  mature  rams  than  from  ram  lambs. 

That  food  exercises  an  important  influence  on  prolifi- 
cacy in  flocks  of  sheep  is  shown:  (i)  In  the  more  abun- 
dant production  on  an  average  of  the  more  vigorous  ewes 
in  the  flock:  (2)  in  the  more  abundant  production  from 
ewes  mated  when  the  powers  of  the  system  are  building 
up ;  and  (3)  in  the  more  abundant  production  from  rams 
vigorous  and  well  sustained,  as  compared  with  those  un- 
der conditions  the  opposite.  The  fact  last  stated  has  been 
disputed,  as  previously  intimated.  It  would  be  easily 
possible,  however,  to  hinder  prolificacy  by  feeding  food 
too  stimulating  and  too  lacking  in  succulence.  The  most 
abundant  breeding  results  not  from  a  high  condition  of 
flesh,  but  from  a  high  condition  of  the  same  accompanied 
by  what  may  be  termed  a  sappy  condition  of  the  system, 
resulting  from  feeding  succulent  food. 

Much  left  to  the  shepherd — In  managing  a  flock  of 
sheep  much  should  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  shep- 
herd, where  the  flock  is  of  sufficient  size  to  justify  keep- 


ESTABLISHING  A   FLOCK   AND   IMPROVING   IT  467 

ing  one.  The  shepherd  has  a  knowledge  of  the  flock  that 
is  more  intimate  and  thorough  than  the  knowledge  of  the 
same  possessed  by  anyone  else.  Especially  with  refer- 
ence to  details  of  management  his  knowledge  is  the  most 
complete,  and,  therefore,  when  qualified  for  his  work,  in- 
terference with  such  details  on  the  part  of  the  owner  of  a 
flock  should  never  take  place,  except  for  the  best  of 
reasons. 

Usually  the  shepherd  is  a  good  judge  of  sheep.  He 
knows  which  are  the  best  producers  and  also  those  that 
ought  to  be  discarded,  whether  because  of  age  or  for  some 
other  reason.  If  sheep  are  to  be  added  to  the  flock  by 
purchase,  the  opinion  of  the  shepherd  should  be  given  due 
weight  with  reference  to  the  wisdom  of  the  transaction. 
In  such  matters  the  opinion  of  the  shepherd  is  frequently 
superior  to  that  of  the  flock  owner. 

In  the  management  of  breeding  flocks  much  may  be 
left  to  the  wise  shepherd  in  making  sales  privately.  Here, 
again,  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  flock  makes  him  a 
safe  adviser.  In  fact,  with  some  general  instructions,  he 
may  manage  the  buying  and  selling,  to  the  great  relief 
of  the  owner,  and  also  to  his  advantage.  Responsibility 
amicably  shouldered  upon  a  competent  man  adds  to  his 
fidelity  and  usefulness. 

The  faithful  shepherd  is  also  deserving  of  much  con- 
sideration at  the  lambing  season.  His  labors  at  such  a 
time  in  a  large  flock  are  abundant  and  exacting.  His  rest 
is  disturbed,  it  may  be  to  the  extent  of  making  it  impossi- 
ble for  him  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  flock  as  they  should 
be  met.  Under  such  conditions  he  should  be  .given  full 
liberty  to  call  such  additional  help  as  will  enable  him  to 
tide  over  this  trying  season  with  a  minimum  of  loss.  At 
many  of  the  fairs  in  England  prizes  are  also  offered  to  the 
shepherds  who  have  reared  the  largest  percentage  of 
lambs  from  flocks  containing  ewes  not  fewer  in  number 
than  the  prize  list  calls  for.  Some  of  those  shepherds 
have  the  same  flock  in  charge  during  practically  the  en- 
tire period  of  their  ability  to  render  such  service. 


INDEX 


Page 
A 

Age,  determining,   of  sheep 357 

Ailments  of 335 

Abortion     413 

Bloat     404 

Broken   limbs    417 

Bronchitis    411 

Catarrh    410 

Colic 408 

Diarrhea    406 

Digestive  disorders    405 

Foot-rot 414 

Garget    420 

Goiter 419 

Inversion   of  womb    414 

Navel  diseases   418 

Ophthalmia    419 

Parasites    387,  391 

Pleurisy   412 

Pneumonia    411 

Prevention  and  treatment  of 385 

Retention  of  afterbirth   413 

Retention  of  excrement    418 

Stretches    409 

Tumors    419 

Urinary  troubles     420 

White   scours    417 

Wool  balls 418 


Corral  and  its  place  373 


Dams,  after  weaning 252 

Assisting,  in  labor 98 

Care  of 247 

Disposing    of    253 

Grazing  for,  before  weaning 265 

Dips,  arsenical    430 

Carbolic   429 

Coal  tar 428 

Lime  and  sulphur   426 

Dipping    421 

Basic  elements   in    425 

Care  of  sheep  subsequently  to...  440 

Classes  of 422 

Facts  of 438 

Necessity  of    443 

Objects  sought  from   421 

Plant  for   431 

Season    for    436 

Diseases,      protection      and      treat- 
ment of   3?5 


Page 
Dogs     366 

Effect  of,  upon  sheep  husbandry.  366 

In  the  United  States 376 

Place   for,   in   sheep   husbandry.  .  377 

Protection  of  sheep  from 369 

Worrying  sheep  by   368 


Ewes 122 

Caring  for 97 

Exercise  for  breeding 133 

Food  for   130 

Grading  of    129 

Management  of,  at  breeding  sea- 
son   124 

when  on   pasture   141 

when   in   labor    98 

when  weaning  lambs   142 

to  be  discarded   144 

from  weaning  until  bred 122 

Wintering     126 


Fattening  203 

Concentrates  suitable  for 215 

Duration  of,  period  231 

Fodders  suitable  for  211 

General  observations  on 235 

Increase  from  sheep  while 232 

Profit  from,  in  winter 233 

Selecting  sheep  for 205 

Screenings  for  226 

Succulence  suitable  for  213 

Sugar  beet  pulp  for  * .  223 

Two  lots  in  succession 227 

Fertility,  in  paddocks  8 

Removed  by  sheep  

Finishing  sheep,  on  corn  197 

Field  roots  200 

Grass  pastures  with  grain  189 

Grass  pastures  without  grain 187 

Other  crops  201 

Peas  199 

Rape 192 

Western  grain  fields  191 

Flock  445 

Breeding  in  464 

Crossing  in,  legitimate  462 

Culling  of  348 

Disposal  of  352-356 

Establishing  a 447 

Improvement  of  455 

Pure  bred  256 

Sires  used  in  452 


470 


INDEX 


Page 

o 

Grazing  164 

Benefits  from  supplemental 184 

Grain  24 

Grass,  for  winter 174 

Sheep  on  grass  27 

Sheep  on  supplementary  170 

Grub  in  the  head  . .                       ...  402 


Lambs     93 

Aid  to  young    100 

Care  for,  until  weaned 108 

Care  for,  subsequently  to  weaning  113 

Castrating    114 

Creep   for    110 

Docking    117 

Food  for,  when  weaned   113 

Food  for  young   108 

Rearing,  by  hand   105 

Registration  of 119 

Reviving  chilled  102 

Season  for,  to  come   93 

Supplemental  food  for 107 

Weaning Ill 


Milk  lambs  238 

Care  and  food  for 262,  249 

Changing  the  breeding  habit  for. .  241 

Definition  of 238 

Essentials  in  239 

Growing,  from  grazing 253 

Marketing  250 

Obtaining 240 

Quarters  suitable  for 246 

Subsequently  to  weaning  266 

Where  should  be  grown  24S 

Mutton,  aim  in  production  of 55 

Breeds  producing  35 

Conditions  favorable  to,  producing  46 

Crossing  breeds  for  48 

Influences  affecting  41 


Pastures     1 64 

Grass,  permanent 167 

Grass,  temporary 169 

Grass,  supplementary   170 

Sheep  finished  on  grass 176 

without  grain    1"7 

Grass,  for  winter  grazing 174 


Rams    149 

Disposal  of 160 

Food  and  care  during  flrst  winter  152 
Food  from  weaning  until  winter. .  149 
Management  at  season  of  service  157 

Sale,  in  summer 154 

Stock,  in  summer    15S 

Stock,  in  winter 153 

Trimming  feet  of 162 


Page 

Sheep   i 

As  brush  destroyers    23 

Fertilizers  of  poor  land 7 

Fertilizers  for  gardens   10 

Improvers  of  clover  seed  yields     28 

Improvers  of  soil    7 

Weed   destroyers    13 

Age  to  be  shown   279 

Disposal  of 250 

Droppings   of,    are    valuable    ....  5 

Excessive  fatness  in   277 

Exercise   for   276 

Fitting,  for  sale  355 

Food  for,  while  nursing 107 

Handling,  when  shearing  or  wash- 
ing      293 

Methods   of  shearing    300 

Methods  of  washing   291 

Preparing,  for  shipping   359 

Quarters  for  319 

Shipping     361-365 

Should  be  kept  on   all   farms    ...  29 

Show,  in  transit  to  fairs   272 

Sources  from  which  obtained  ....  203 

Special  treatment  for  Merino  ....  271 

Tagging,  when  washed 296 

Time  and  place  for  shearing    . .  .  29S 

Trimming  the  feet  of 307 

Washing,  before  shearing   236 

Washing  and  smearing,  for  show  269 

Salt     309 

Necessity  for  feeding 315 

Supplying,  in   summer    316 

Supplying,    in   winter    318 

Scab,    sheep    388 

Dipping  sheep    for    421 

Self-feeders   and  their  uses    221 

Shelter     319 

Essential   features   of    326 

In  summer  and  winter 319-321 

Locating     322 


Tapeworm    395 

Tick,  sheep  387 

Ticks,  dipping  sheep  for 421 


Water  309 

Facilities  for 336 

Good  health  and  314 

Necessity  for 309 

Providing,  in  summer 311 

Providing,  in  winter 312 

Weeds 13 

Freeing  lands  from  17 

Wool 73 

Aim  in  production  53 

Break  in  87 

Breeds  producing 35 

Carding  and  combing  6"? 

Characteristics  of 73 

Classification  of  33,  64 

Closure  in  83 


INDEX  471 

Page  JPage 

Vool— Continued  Wool— Continued 

Color    in    80  Kemp   in    88 

Crimp   or  curl   in    78  Softness  in    79 

Definition    of    58  Toppiness    in    I 

Density  in    77       •    Trimming,  for  fairs 267 

Distribution  of,  over  body 70  Uniformity  in    81 

Fiber   in    60,  74  Watery   86 

Felting   in    84  Yolk   in    62 

Influences  hurtful  to 37       Worm,  stomach    391 


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